Author: jic459

Modality in K’iche’

In this unit, we will study conditional expressions in both positive and negative forms, exploring how they can lead to different types of consequences. We will also examine contrasting phrases.

A concept known as “modality” or “mood” allows speakers to express evaluations, attitudes, or stance toward events, rather than providing referential content. This includes moods like the imperative, hortative, potential, subjunctive, and optative, for example, which often refer to events that do not yet exist in reality but exist in the realms of imagination, possibility, or desire.

The irrealis mood, a part of modality, is used to discuss hypothetical or unreal events, indicating to the listener that these events are imagined. For example, in conditional statements such as “If you had done this, that would have happened,” we discuss an event that has not and may never happen, using irrealis to express its hypothetical nature.

Conversely, some conditional sentences reflect real-world scenarios, such as “If you do this, this will happen.” These conditionals do not fall under irrealis and are not marked as such in languages like K’iche’.

The main particles:

In K’iche’ modality is expressed using a combination of pre-verbal aspect markers and free particles.

TA: This particle appears after the verb and elevates the event into an imaginary, irrealis event. It is used along with other particles in conditional sentences.

LA’/WA’: The demonstrative pronoun (deictic) is the main indicator of irrelais events. It is often found in the consequence clause of irrealis-conditional clauses (If you had done this, this LA’ would/might/could  happened). It indicates that the event mentioned ‘could/might’ happen.

WE: This particle introduces conditional clauses (if…); often the following verb takes ch-aspect marker.

B’A: Particle that expresses the hope for the fulfillment of a wish; appears after the verb in combination with TA (TA BA)

NE: Particle expresses possibility; appears after the verb in combination with TA (TA NE); or after WE to form WE NE: maybe

MA: In all non-indicative negation contexts, the negation marker is MA (instead of NA)

 

CONDITIONALS

In K’iche’ conditional clauses like these are reflections of the “real” world, and therefore are not marked with an irrealis marker. The main particle for conditionals is we; the verb generally takes the ch-aspect.

Positive Conditionals If you do this, this will happen…

We chatchakunik, k’o awa. If you go to work, you will have food.

We chab’ij, na katinch’ab’ej ta chik. If you say it, I will not talk to you.

We chojb’e pa le nimaq’ij, keqil le ajxojolob’. If we go to the fair, we will see dancers,

 Negative Conditional If you don’ do this, then this will (not) happen

 wemna + subjunctive/dependent aspect verb

Wemna chpe le jab’ kakam le ab’ix. If rain does not come, the milpa will die.

Wemna chaloq’ axiyal, na kinb’e ta awuk’. If you don’t buy a coat, I will not go with you.

Wemna chatijoj awib’, na kach’ak ta le atijonik. If you do not study, you will not learn the lesson (lit. win your lesson).

Wemna kujb’ek kab’ison le qatat. If we don’t go, our father will be sad.

Wemna chinak’amo, kinb’an ayab’.

Wemna chpe le jab’ kakam le ab’ix.

Wemna chaloq’ axiyal, na kinb’e ta awuk’.

Wemna chatijoj awib’, na kach’ak ta le atijonik.

Wemna kujb’ek kab’ison qatat.

Contrastive conditionals 

Even though this occurred, that happened

This mood is marked by the particles pi ne ta ne or are ta + x-E-aj, which again is found in pre-verbal position.

Pi ne ta ne

Pine ta ne maj nurajil, kimb’e wi. Even though I don’t have money, I will go (anyway).

Pine ta ne kinitzapij pa che’ kintor wib’. Even though they throw me in jail, I will get out (lit: I will open up).

Pine ta ne kape le qatat na kinxe’j ta wib’. Even though my father come, I will not get scared.

Pine ta ne maj le ajkun, na kinkam ta wi. Even though the doctor is not here, I will not die.

Pine ta ne kekamsax le tz’i’, na kek’is ta wi.

Pine ta ne kixxuki’ chinuwach na kinkuy ta imak.

Pine ta ne kinab’ochi’ij na kawaj ta wi.

Are ta is followed by a completive verb form of aj (to want) which is in agreement with the subject/agent of the clause.

Are ta xraj le tz’i’ xok pa le jul, par na xkowin taj rumal sib’alaj nim. The dog wanted to enter the hole, but he couldn’t because it is too big.

Are ta xiwaj xixb’ixanik par na utz ta le iqul. You all wanted to sing but your voices are not very good.

Are ta xkaj le winaq xewa’ik, par maj chi re rikil. The people wanted to eat, but there was no longer any food.

Ri tz’ikin are ta xraj xuk’is tzij puwi’ ri ali, chema ma k’u xkam ta ri ali, xa ne xaq xew ri tz’ikin xkamik (rey de los reyes: 50)

Ri ala sib’alaj xsach uk’u’x aretaq xuto chi chpam ri nimalaj ul kachach wi ri ranab’, karaj ta chik resam ri ranab’ loq; chema ma kakowin ta k’ut kaqaj b’i chpam ma sib’alaj k’ax xuq nim xulanik. (rey de los Reyes:52)

Contrastive Condicional + Negation Even though this didn’t happen, that happened.

Pinemna

Pinemna kab’e le watz, kimb’e wi in pa ka’yib’al. Even though my brother may not go, I will go (anyway) to the market.

Kinya wa’ we ch’ich’, pinemna utz. I will give away this machete, though it may not be good

Conditional/Irrealis If you had done this, that would have happened.

 

The condition is introduced by we ta. The possible consequence or result in the following clause is marked by ta + (deictic pronoun) la’. Notice that the verb forms are in the completive aspect.

We ta xatb’e wuk’ pa le tinamit, xaloq’ ta la’ le ujastaq le ak’ajol If you had gone with me to town, you could have bought your son’s clothes.

We ta xatb’e wuk’ pa le tinamit, xaloq’ ta wa’ we jastaq If you had gone with me to town, you could have bought these clothes.

Conditional/Irrealis + Negation If you had (not) done this…., you would (not) have….

 The negation is formed with the particles ma ta.

If the conditional clause is negated (if you had not), the negation particle ma ta appears after we ta to from:  we ta ma ta : If you had not….

We ta ma ta xatb’e pa le tinamit ma ta xaloq’ la’ le ujastaq le ak’ajol. Had you not gone to town, you wouldn’t have bought your son’s clothes.

We ta ma ta xinawilo ma ta kinya b’e la’ chawech. Had you not visited me, I wouldn’t have given you permission.

We ta ma ta xinpetik, in k’o ta wa’ chwa wo’ch. Had I not come, I would be home.

We ta ma ta xpe alaq, k’o ta alaq la’ chwa ja. Had you all (formal) not come, you all would be home.

In a negated consequence clause, ma ta moves to the position in front of the verb or negated element, the deictic particle remains after the verb/negated element.

We ta xakunaj le atat ma ta xkam la’. Had you cured your dad, we wouldn’t have died.

We ta xanimaj jas le xinb’ij chawech, ma ta je la’ la’ xab’ano. Had you listened to me, you would not be like that.

In cases in which the consequence clause include the negation of k’o (=maj), the negation marker ma combines with maj, only leaving behind ta:

We ta ma ta aq’ab’ kab’ek, maj ta utem la’ kuriq pa le nimach’ich’. Had he/she not gone early, he/she would not have found a seat on the bus.

Other Irrealis /Mood-Clauses

Wished/ Wishful thinking or hypothetical thinking is expressed by ta in combination with another particles. (When ta appears alone after a verb, it is generally understood be regular negation, where pre-verbal na has dropped off)

WE TA: if only… These particles appear before the verb

We ta kape le jab’ kamik. If only rain would come today.

We ta je la’ kab’an pa le tinamit. If only this way were done in town.

We ta kaya jub’eq nurajil, kinloq’ jun nuch’opim po’t. If only they give me a bit of money, I would buy an embroidered huipil.

WE TA NE : If not…

These particles appear before the verb

We ta ne in xinb’anowik, are le a Te’k xb’anowik. If it not I who did it, it was Diego who did it.

We ta ne at xatloq’owik… If it was you who bought it…

We ta ne a’re xetijow le rikil, are le komon xetijowik. If not them who ate the food, it was those from the hamlets.

 MA TA: If only not…/ that there be not….

These particles appear before the verb.

Ma ta xab’insaj le ch’ich’. Xaq xew xayojo. You shouldn’t have driven the car. You just broke it down.

Ma ta xinyaj le ali. Numak xyawajik. I would not have scolded the girl. It was my fault she got sick.

Ma ta k’o jun kakanaj kanoq, qonojel kojb’ek. May no one stay, we are all going.

Ma ta kab’e le nuxb’al pa le tinamit. May my sister (of a woman) not go to town.

Ruk’ ronojel wanima, kixinsik’ij, kixinwab’a’, are chi qonojel kojk’oji’ pa we tijob’äl chech we junab’, ma ta k’o jun chel kanöq, ma ta k’o je wa’ je ri’ chqariqo, chqak’ulmaj (UTZALAJ ULEM :Poemas de Ixtahuacan)

TA B’A: Affirmed wish (may…)

This particle can appear before or after the verb.

Are ta b’a ri qaqajaw kixtewechi’nik. May our lord bless you.

Chpe ta b’a le loq’alaj jab’. May the blessed rain come.

Chqil ta b’a qib’ chwe’q. May we see each other tomorrow.

Oj ta b’a chojch’akanik. May we win.

Katjunamataj ruk’ le ch’umil kchupchutik. Ki’kotemal ta b’a awech chkixo’l le a’wal. (JE’LALAJ NUNAN Poemas de Ixtahuaca)

TA B’A NA: May you still/then (affirmed wish with a slight contrast)

These particles appear after the verb/predicate/referent

Chink’asi’ ta b’a na chixo’l. May I still live among you.

Chkita ta b’a na le qatzij. May they still hear our words.

MA TA B’A: Negated affirmed wish (May not..)

These particles appear before the verb.

Ma ta b’a chiriq k’ax pa le b’e. May they not find hardships on the road.

Ma ta b’a chik’ex le ina’oj. May you all not change your minds.

Ma ta b’a’chub’an keb’ ik’u’x chwij, chinkochij ta b’a na ri itob’anik, ri iloq’ob’al (K’AMOWINANIK Poemas de Ixtahuacan)

ARE TA B’A: May s/he do this/be this (antipassive construction):

These particles appear before the verb

Are ta b’a le qaqajaw chatto’wik. May it be our Lord who helps you.

Are ta b’a ri nunan kach’akanik. May it be my mother who wins.

Are ta b’a ri Tiköl Kaj Ulew chatloq’chajin pa ri ak’aslemal. (UTZALAJ NUNAN Poemas de Ixtahuacan)

Are ta b’a ri Tikäl Kaj Ulew kattewechi’nik, ki’kotemal ta b’a awech , xe’ raqan uq’ab’. (LOQ’OLAJ NAN)

TA NE: Past desire

These particles appear after the verb.

Ri tat nan ojer na xkaj taj cher ri ali xkoji’ ta ne pa ri tijob’al. Our fathers and mothers back in the day did not want girls to be in school.

XAQ TA NE: If only I could (unfulfilled desire)

These particles appear before the verb.

Xaq ta ne kimb’e iwuk’. If only I could’ve gone with you all.

Xaq ta ne in la’! If only it were like that!

MA TA NE: Regret

These particles appear before the verb.

Ma ta ne xwaj le k’uhjnem ruk’ le a Te’k. I wouldn’t have accepted marrying Diego.

Ma ta ne xatb’e ruk’. I wouldn’t have gone with him.

Ma ta ne xqaya kan le ak’al. We wouldn’t have left the kid.

RAJAWAXIK TA NE LA’: You should do/should have done something (jussive)

These particles appear before the verb.

Rajawaxik ta ne la’ katchakun wuk’. You should work with me.

Rajawaxik ta ne la’ ximb’e pa le k’ayb’al. I should’ve gone to the market.

Rajawaxik ta ne la’ kato’ le atat. You should help your father.

WE NE KOWINIK TA LA’: You could have maybe done it

These particles appear before the verb.

We ne xatkowin ta la’ xatb’e ruk’ le al Talin. Maybe you could’ve gone with Catarina.

We ne xkowin ta la’ xuchap le wakax. Maybe you could’ve grabbed the bull.

We ne xatkowin ta la’ xaloq’o Maybe you could’ve bought it.

 

 

Nominalizations

Nominalizations are nouns that are derived from verbal stems. This is a very productive word class in K’iche’. Various types of nominalizations are derived from both transitive and intransitive verbs. The verbal root provides their meaning and carries their valency over into the newly formed noun; depending on the root from which they originate, these nouns may or may not be linked to a direct object, as we will see later.

Agentives

Agentive forms are a very common group of word and refer to the person executing the verb action, similar to the suffix –er in English: writ-er, sing-er, teach-er. In K’iche’ there are two types: those that end with the suffix -Vl, in which V is a vowel, and those that take the proclitic particle aj at the beginning.

Agentives, other than the ones formed by aj, may be formed from transitive or intransitive stems, but not all possible stems serve as bases for an agentive. There seem to be no agentives from focus antipassive stems; non-CVC verb stems are not used as a base for an agentive (they are made into an antipassive stem first). Agentives from positionals are based on the adjective/stative stem.

Agentives nouns retain valency: the ability of the newly formed noun to bind object (or not) depends on the stem the agentive is based upon. Agentive nouns from a transitive stem are able to occur with a direct object; objects of agentives from intransitive stems have to appear as obliques.

We will now explain the ways to form agentives:

Agentive with “aj” This agentive form is marked with  aj, which attaches mainly to nouns, some verb roots, a few adverbials (waral), and place names. Agentives with aj mostly refer to origin (ajNawalja’ – somebody from Nahuala), occupation (ajchak – worker), and sometimes ownership.

Ajq’e – owner

Ajq’u’ – ghost (pl: ajq’u’ab’) (rajawal b’e)

Intransitive agentives from intransitive verb stems: -el Agentives from intransitive verb stems are formed with the suffix -el. Intransitive verb stems include here: root intransitive verbs, absolutive antipassive stems and passive stems. Often agentives with –el will also include the aj prefix, especially when referring to an activity that a person would do on a regular basis, like a job or occupation.

Agentives from derived transitive verbs (non-CVC) are always formed from the absolutive antipassive stem.

CVC transitive stems have their own –Vl suffix to form (active) agentives (see below), but agentives may also be formed from the antipassive stem of the CVC root.

B’in b’inel – traveler ajb’inel – traveler (for business, with a specific purpose) b’inel ja’ – moving water (rivers, streams) wa’katel – traveler wa’katelawinaq – tourist ka’y ka’yel – watcher, one who sees ajka’yel – observer, spectator xaq ka’yel xulik – he just came to watch q’ab’ar q’aba’rel – drunkard (this agentive does not appear as *ajq’ab’arel)

Agentives from non-CVC verbs (using antipassive stem):

Kamisaj Kamisanel – killer K’ayij K’ayinel – traitor (often refers to Judas Iscariote) Q’ojomaj Q’ojomanel – musician

loq’oj loq’omanel – buyer

 

Agentives from the antipassive stem from CVC transitive verb:

Kol Kolonel – savior, protector (used in a religious context) ajkolonel rech jun tinamit savior of a city Toj Tojonel – payer, one who pays

 

Agentives from passive stems:

Tijoj Tijoxel – student

K’ayij K’ayixe’l ixim – corn designated to be sold

 

Agentives from transitive verbs stems: CVC transitive verbs form the agentive with –Vl. The vowel of the suffix depends on the root vowel.

-ol	if the vowel is /o/
-ul	if the vowel is /u/
-al	elsewhere

The agentive prefix aj– may be used together with the –Vl suffix. B’an B’anal si’ Aj b’anal si’ – firewood gatherer (also, ajsiwil) Yak Yakal ixim Aj yakal ixim – middleman (buying corn wholesale) Aj yakal atz’yaq – clothes buyer (wholesale) Ch’aj Ch’ajal ch’ich’ – car washer (as a job) Aj ch’ajal ch’ich’ – car washer (as a job) Sik’ Sik’il uwa wuj – reader Loq’ Loq’ol ixim – corn buyer, one who buys corn Tzukuj Tzukul masat – deer hunter

Ajchapal tz’i’ – dog catcher (as a job)

As mentioned above, the agentive noun retains valency; if you want to employ an agentive from a transitive root, you have to decide, whether the new noun needs to control an object or not, and according to this, agentive nouns is formed from the active transitive stem (-Vl) or from the antipassive stem (with –el). In the first case, the verbal object is juxtaposed, being incorporated into the agentive. In the second, the nominalization with an antipassive root, the agentive cannot be incorporated into the direct object, but can only be introduced with an oblique phrase:

Exceptions:

Xojow Aj xojolob’ – dancer Elaq’aj elaq’om – thief elaq’anel – thief

There are a small number of agentive forms that do not refer to the agent, but to a referent capable of undergoing the action expressed by the verb. The following examples come from the genre of ceremonial speech (pach’um tzij) and are not used in daily speech.

Kam Kamel – mortal, one who dies Oj kamel, xaq kojok’owik – we are mortal, we are just passing by k’is k’isel – something that is finite (from the passive stem) xaq oj k’isel pa we uwach ulew – we are finite (passengers) here on this earth q’ax q’axel – something lasting a short time, passenger (from passive stem)

Nominalizations of Verbs

There are verbal nominalizations in K’iche’ that express the action or experience expressed by the verb or its consequences. These are often expressed as gerunds in English. For example: b’inem (the action of walking, the walk), mayowem (the experience of worrying, the worry). These nouns are derived from both transitive and intransitive verb stems and can be glossed in English as “the act of X-ing.”

For intransitive verb stems the suffix is –em. For positionals, add the –em to the adjective/stative stem:

Exceptions

waram – sleep, sleeping xpe nuwaram – I am sleepy (lit: my sleepiness came)

 

The gerund from transitive verb stems is formed by the suffix –oj for CVC transitive verbs. For non-CVC verbs the ‘unconjugated’ verb stem forms the gerund

k’aqoj ib’ – shooting (throwing at each other)

 

Nominalizations with –ik Most K’iche’ verbs derive nominalizations attaching the suffix –ik to intransitive verb stems, passive or antipassive stems. These verbal nouns can be glossed as “the X-ing”, or “the being X-ed.” Note the semantice difference between these verbal nouns with –ik “the X-ing” and the verbal nouns with –em/-Vj “the act of X-ing”. They are usually part of object clauses and are best translated using non-finite constructions.

When the main verb is intransitive, the dependent verbal noun must be introduced as an oblique, usually with che or pa. If the main verb transitive the verbal noun may directly follow as the object.

With an intransitive main verbs:

With a Transitive Main Verb:

The nominalizations also retain a certain sense of transitivity and voice in their new status as nouns. This means that close attention has to be paid to the stem of the verbal noun to determine the role of the other participants in the phrase.

If the concept expressed (in the complement clause) is semantically transitive, but the focus is on the object of the concept, K’iche’ prefers a construction that involves a possessed passive verbal noun (passive I and II). The possessor corresponds to the patient (object) of the event.

La amajim reta’maxik le lejenik?

Le q’ab’arel ojer chi umajim ub’anik k’ax chech urajil

utz rilik

Utz una’ik le rikil.

Utz una’ik le jab’.

Na utz ta utayik le b’ix.

Nim ub’antajik le tinamit Nawalja’.

Na xil ta la le utikitajik le anim.

If the emphasis is on an agent of a transitive verb, the transitive active nominalization is used:

If the concept expressed (in the complement clause) is semantically intransitive, the verbal noun is formed from root intransitive stems or, antipassives, but not from passives. The verbal noun does not refer to an object/patient, but to the subject of the event indicated. When the verbal noun is possessed, the possessor is the subject of the event indicated.

Xqamajij paqalem chuwa le juyub’.

Xb’e pa jun b’inem.

Kaqamajij chomanik pa q’atb’al tzij chwe’q.

Kaqamajij uchomaxik le juk’ulaj – we began to counsel the couple.

Xuchap paqalem rajil le ixim pa k’ayb’al.

Pa taq waqib ramaj rech aq’ab’il (6:00), xumajij uqajem nimaq taq jab’, xumajij relik taq ul pa ronojel taq le k’olb’al.

Exceptions:

Some intransitive and transitive verbs have irregular nominalizations:

elaq’aj (stealing) elaq’ik

Translate the following sentences from K’iche’ to English:

1. Kujb’e pa wa’im.
2. Xeb’e le winaq pa ka’yem.
3. La kixb’e kuk’ pa etz’anem?
4. Xb’e le ali pa k’ulanem.
5. Xinq’i’taj che le b’inem.
6. Xekos le achijab’ che le tak’alem.
7. Xpe nuwaram.
8. Le paqalem kub’an k’ax chqech.
9. Petem kub’an le ala chanim.
10. Xumajij le Wel kitijoxik le qatijoxelab’
11. Xuchap utijonik le Wel
12. Xuchap utijik q’or le ne’.
13. Xqamajij paqalem chuwa le juyub’.
14. K’ax le b’inem chaq’ab’.
15. Na utz ta le ka’yem pa taq nima q’ij.
16. Utz rilik le ali.
17. Rajawaxik utayik le uwa le meb’a’ ali ruk’ le rati’t.
18. K’ax kito’ik le winaq le xaq ch’a’oj kakaj.
19. La utz kil la le k’aqanik?
20. Kimb’e pa kunaxik chwe’q pa tinamit.
21. Le tz’i’ xa kuya rib’ pa kamisaxik.
22. Kujb’e chuloq’ik qawa. (che uloq’ik)
23. T’uyul le achi chila’ chi riye’xik ri rixoqil.
24. Xepe le qachalal chi qach’ab’exik.
25. La kixb’e pa k’ayb’al chi kik’ayixik le ikarne’l?
26. Xepaqi’ le achijab’ chuwi’ le juyub’ chi keqaxik le yawab’ib’.
27. Rajawaxik kaqab’an utzalaj kiloq’oxik la qatat qanan.
28. Le achi xuchap uya’ik le pwaq chke le ajchakib’.
29. K’ax ub’anik le chak pa taq juyub’.
30. Na k’ax ta kichajixik le ak’alab’.
31. Xq’i’taj le ala che ri tob’anik
32. Wa’ we achijab’ kakib’an k’ayinik pa taq tinamit.
33. Le ali maja kareta’maj ri uchapanik.
34. Kaqamajij chomanik pa q’atb’al tzij chwe’q.
35. Na utz ta le kamisanik.

Answers

1. We are going to eat.
2. The people went to watch (e.g., the party).
3. Are you going with them to the game?
4. The young woman went to the wedding (can also mean: she got married).
5. I got tired of walking.
6. The men got tired of standing.
7. I am sleepy (lit. sleep came to me).
8. The climb harms us / The uphill is hard on us.
9. The boy is about to come right now.
10. Manuel started teaching our students.
11. Manuel started his class.
12. The baby started drinking atol.
13. We started climbing the steep part of the mountain.
14. It is hard to walk at night.
15. It’s not good to go to parties (lit. to go watch at parties).
16. The young woman looks good / pretty.
17. The the poor girl’s food needs to be requested from her grandmother.
18. It is hard to help people who only want to fight.
19. Do you like to hunt?
20. I’m going to the town tomorrow to be healed.
21. The dog just lets itself die.
22. We are going to buy our food.
23. The man is sitting over there waiting for his wife.
24. Our relatives came to visit us.
25. Are you going to the market to sell your lamb?
26. The men climbed to the top of the mountain to carry the sick.
27. We need to give a lot of love to our parents.
28. The man started giving money to the workers.
29. The work in the mountains is hard.
30. It’s not hard to take care of children.
31. The young man got tired of helping.
32. These men sell things in several towns.
33. The young woman still hasn’t learned to work.
34. We start serving at the town hall tomorrow.
35. It is not good to kill.

In K’iche’ some nouns change their form when possessed. Here is an overview what can happen when nouns are possessed in K’iche’.

1. Nouns with no change when possessed.

Most nouns, simple and derived, do not change form when possessed:

wuj	book	nuwuj	my book
pop	mat	apop	your mat
aj	elote, corn cob	waj	my elote (fresh ear of corn)

2. Nouns that show change in vowel length when possessed. In dialects in K’iche’ that show phonemic vowel length, the short last vowel of the noun will change into a long vowel when possessed. This is not represented in written K’iche’ in our class (in the following table, long vowels are in bold).

kinaq’	beans	nukinaq’	my beans
pwaq	money	upwaq	her money
wakax	cow	iwakax	your cow (you all)
kar	fish	ukar	his/her fish
tz’i’	dog	atz’i’	your dog
ab’aj	rock	kabaj	their rock

 

3. Nouns that drop a suffix when possessed (-aj) Most K’iche’ words for parts of the body drop the suffix –aj  when possessed.

aqanajleg, foot	iwaqan	your (pl) leg
q’ab’aj arm, hand	nuq’ab’	my arm, my hand
uwi q’ab’aj fingers	uwi nuq’ab’	his/her fingers
qulaj neck	kiqul	their neck
jolomaj head	nujolom	my head
tza’maj nose	utza’m	his/her/its nose
xkinaj ear	qaxkin	our ear
chi’aj mouth	nuchi’	my mouth
xik’ wing	uxik’	his/her/its wing
wi’aj hair	awi’	your hair
wachaj face	nuwach	my face
b’aq’wachaj eye	kib’aq’wach	their eye
pamaj stomach	pam la	your stomach (formal)
k’u’xaj heart (uwa k’u’xaj: chest)	nuk’u’x	my heart
palajaj face	apalaj	your face
ch’ekaj knee	nuch’ek	my knee
ch’u’kaj elbow	nuch’u’k	my elbow
ware’aj teeth; edge (of knife)	nuware’	my teeth

Plural of complex body parts + possession

le uwi q’ab’aj	finger
le uwi taq q’ab’aj	fingers
le uwi le nuq’ab’	my finger
le uwi taq le nuq’ab’	my fingers
K’ax le uwi taq le nuq’ab’	My fingers hurt.

*Note, whenever -wi’ appears as part of a compound word (e.g. uwi q’ab’aj) the glottal stop is dropped. The same occurs with -chi’ > uchi ja. Non-body parts that drop –aj suffix when possessed

q’u’aj	blanket	nuq’u’ (also: nuk’ul)	my blanket
b’i’aj	name	nub’i’	my name
makaj	sin; fault	amak	your sin; your fault
k’asaj	debt	nuk’as	my debt
sokaj	nest; bed	kisok	their bed
ch’akataj	cushion; pillow	nuch’akat	my pillow

Kinship terms that drop a suffix when possessed: The unpossessed form is used when talking about those kinds relationship as an absolute, without indicating a relationship in particular.

achajilom	husband (pl: e achajilom)	wachajil	my husband
ixoqilom	wife (pl: e ixoqilom)	wixoqil	my wife
alk’walaxel (-ab’)	child (within a family)	walk’ual	my child (pl: e walk’ual)
ji’axel (-ab’)	son-in-law	nuji’	my son-in-law
chaq’ixel (-ab’)	younger siblings (same sex)	nuchaq’	mi younger sibling
k’ajoloxel	child (of father)	nuk’ajol	my son (of father)
ula’xel	guest, visitor	wula’	my guest
alb’atz (-ib’)	daughter-in-law	walib’	my daughter –in-law
Qajawixel, k’ajoloxel, uxlab’ixel		Father, Son, and Holy Sprit

“Inalienable possession” (Add suffix –Vl)  Inalienable possession indicates an intrinsic relationship with the possessor; or it describes a quality of the possessor. The suffix indicates that the noun is now inalienable: these nouns indicate a close relationship with the possessor nouns. The same suffix also serves to derive abstract nouns.

ib’och’	veins	rib’och’il	his veins/ veins belonging to her
sib’	smoke	usib’el le q’aq’	the smoke of the fire
kik’	blood	nuk’ik’el	my blood/ the blood belonging to me
ajaw	lord	rajawal	the lord of/over
b’aq	bone	nub’aqil	my body
utz  + wachaj	good + face	rutzil wachaj	a greeting
che’ + -ij	tree + back	uch’e’el wij	my spinal column

Nouns that are always possessed. These nouns usually appear only as a possessed noun:

-xaq	leaf/leaves	uxaq che’	tree leaves
-a’	calf (muscle)	wa’	my calf
-ij	back, shell, skin	rij	its shell, skin, back
-je’	tail	uje’ koj	lion’s tail
-al	child of mother	ral le al We’l	We’l’s child
-achalal	sibling (pl: e –achalal)	e wachalal	my sibligins
-achi’l	friend (pl.: e –achi’l)	e qachi’il	our friends

Suppletives: A few K’iche’ nouns have a distinct (suppletive) form when they are possessed:

ja	a house (building)	r-o’ch	his/her/its house
q’u’aj	blanket	nuq’u’/nuk’ul	my blanket

Possessed compound nouns: u-NOUN+ NOUN There are numerous compound words in K’iche’ made up of two nouns, a possessed noun followed by the possessor noun. When these compound nouns are possessed the possessive pronoun is added to the second element:

uchi ja	door (lit. the house’s mouth)	uchi wo’ch	my door
uwi ja	roof (lit. the house’s hair)	uwi awo’ch	your roof
uxaq wuj	page(s) (lit. the book’s leaves)	uxaq nuwuj	the page(s) of my book

Note: remember that -o’ch is used for possessed “house”, also in a compound noun

upa ja

family

upa wo’ch

my family

Possessed compound noun: attribute (+a) + noun:

Kem + tz’ib’	kematz’ib’	nukematz’ib’ (neologism)	my computer
Nim + q’ij	nimaq’ij	unimaq’ij	its party
Saq + po’t	saqapo’t	asaqapo’t	your white huipil

Possessed compound noun: noun + noun (couplet) In couplets, one concept is expressed by two ideas, both of which contribute to the understanding of the whole. This rhetoric device is very common in Mayan languages, especially in ceremonial or more formal speech. When a couplet appears in a possessed context, both elements will be possessed:

Ati’t “grandmother” + mam “grandfather”	ancestors, forefathers	qati’t qamam	our ancestors, forefathers
Nan “mother” + tat “father”	parents	qanan qatat	our parents
Il “sin” + mak “fault”	trespasses	qil qamak	our trespasses

 

With a partner, practice the parts of the body, both possessed and unpossessed, and ask each other if they hurt.

For extra practice on body parts, both possessed and unpossessed, you may watch the following video again:

[embed-youtube id=”BTZOHO0p6no”]

The perfect is used in a variety of ways in K’iche’. It mainly denotes that an action was begun in the past, but it also has other uses, which we will study in this unit.

A verb in this aspect indicates that the action was begun in the past, or the action or its effects continue up into the present.  Intransitive and transitive verb stems may be presented in the perfect using different suffixes.

This aspect is only marked by a suffix and carries no prefixed aspect marker.  Pronoun use is exactly as in a finite verb from, i.e. transitive constructions take Set A (ergative) and Set B (absolutive) pronouns in the same order as in finite verbs. Intransitive perfects are marked by Set B pronouns only.

Intransitive stems

For intransitive verb roots, passive II, and antipassive stems the perfect is formed with the suffix –(i)naq.  Perfect from positionals are formed with –(i)naq from the adjective/stative stem ending in –Vl/Vn. The subject is marked with absolutive agreement:

1. In warnaq. I have slept.
2. Uj kosnaq. We are tired.
3. Tak’alnaq. It stopped (a car, bus).
4. In kunatajnaq. I have been cured.
5. At to’tajnaq. You have been helped.
6. In kunannaq. I have cured.
7. In in ch’ayowinaq. I myself have hit.
8. In chakunaq kuk’. I have worked with them.
9. Jachin chiwe uj ilowinaq? Which one of you has seen us?

Transitive verb stems (CVC and non-CVC): In active and passive I voice, the perfect suffix is –om; when root vowel is –u- the suffix is –um. In word final position the vowel of the perfect suffix lengthens (usually not represented in writing). Roots that end in a glottal stop, only add –m.

Active Voice

CVC Transitive

12. At wilom. I have seen you.
13. Wilom. I have seen him/her/it.
14. Uj kilom. They have seen us.

Non-CVC Transitive

15. At nutzukum. I have looked for you.
16. In itzukum. You all have searched for me.
17. At qato’m. We have helped you.

Passive Voice: for the perfect passive the root does not lengthen.  These forms are distinguished from their active counterparts by the use of Set B pronouns only. CVC transitive

18. In ilom. I have been seen
19. Wilom. I have seen.

19. Uj ilom. We have been seen.
20. Qilom. We have seen.

20. I’lom. They have been seen.
21. Kilom. They have seen.

Non-CVC Transitive

22. In tzukum. I have been searched for.
23. Nutzukum. I have searched.

24. E tzukum. They have been searched for.
25. Tzukum alaq. You all (formal) have been searched for.
26. At to’m. You have been helped.
27. Uj to’om. We have been helped.

Pay close attention to the person marker closest to the verb: if ergative, it is the agent of a transitive construction; if absolutive, the verb form is intransitive, and the pronoun indicates the subject.

28. Nuterne’em. I have followed him.
29. In terne’em. I have been followed.

Use of the Perfect Aspect Perfect aspect expresses the idea of an action that began in past time and continued into the present. This form can be translated into English as an –ing form.

30. Warnaq le ak’al. The child is sleeping.
31. We ne petnaq ri achi chanim. Maybe the man is coming now.
32. Jachin eqanaq la’ le si’? Who is packing/carrying that firewood there?
33. At qiye’m chanim. We are waiting for you.

Verbal adjective The verb in the perfect aspect is used as an adjective:

34. kaminaq tz’i’ dead dog
35. sachinaq achi lost man

Pluperfect Aspect The perfect aspect is translated as the pluperfect (had) when it is used with chik. Often it appears in a sentence accompanied by a second verb phrase whose verb is in the completed aspect.

36. Kaminaq chi ri achi are taq xujopan pa ro’ch. The man had already died when we arrived at his house.
37. Uj ch’ajanaq chik are taq xujiwil pa b’e. We had already bathed when you saw us on the road.

Future Perfect Aspect The perfect aspect is translated as the future perfect (will have) when it is used with chik and in a sentence accompanied by a second verb phrase whose verb is in the incomplete aspect.

38. O’kinaq chi le ixoqib’ pa k’ayb’al are taq kujopan chweq. The women will have entered already the market when we arrive tomorrow.
39. Rajawaxik ix ulinaq chik are taq kujb’e oj. It is necessary that you will have already arrived when we go.
40. We ne majim chi le chomal aretaq kujopanik. Maybe the meeting will have already begun when we arrive.

Note: the verb eta’maj Not only is the perfect stem a little irregular (eta’m), in the perfect aspect the meaning of eta’maj “learn” changes to “know.”

40. Weta’am. I know.
41. Reta’am. He knows.
42. Eta’m alaq. You all (formal) know.

torb’al / lawe	key
q’aq’	fire
ch’ich’	car
muqum	buried
kami’x	shirt
sach(o)	to lose, to make a mistake, to disappear
q’atuj (vtr)	to visit

Translate the following phrases to English:

1. Eleq’am ri nuch’ich’.
2. La awilom le nulawe/nutorb’al?
3. Xa nuloq’om ri kami’x ri’ aretaq xinsacho.
4. Aretaq b’anom ri si’, kaqanuk’ le nuq’aq’.
5. La taqom le wuj le nutz’ib’am chawe?
6. La asik’im uwach ri wuj ri’?
7. Na in warnaq taj, rumal la’ k’o sib’alaj nuwaram.
8. Muqum ri kaminaq achi chuxe jun nimalaj che’.
9. Keb’ q’ij chi k’ayinaq ri ixoq ri’ maj jun jastaq xuk’ayij.
10. Na oj kowinaq taj qaq’atum.

Answers

1. My car has been stolen.
2. Have you seen my key?
3. I had just bought that shirt when I lost it.
4. When the firewood is ready, we will build the fire.
5. The book I wrote for you has been sent.
6. Have you read that book?
7. I have not slept, that is why I am very sleepy.
8. The deceased man has been buried under the big tree.
9. For two days the woman has been selling, but she did not sell a single thing.
10. We have not been able to check it.

Translate the following phrases to K’iche’:

1. You had not arrived (there) when we left.
2. Xwan had made moonshine for the party.
3. She says that the book you lost has been found.
4. She says that her father has found the book you lost.
5. You won’t find it if you haven’t looked for it.
6. My neighbor has not been seen for three days.
7. I think he has been working in town.
8. Have these clothes been washed?
9. They didn’t invite us because their house had not been cleaned.
10. They have been married for eight years.

Answers

• Na at opannaq taj aretaq xojelik.
• Ub’anom tzam le a Xwan rumal le nima q’ij.
• Kub’ij chi riqom le wuj ri xasacho.
• Kub’ij chi le utat uriqom le wuj ri xasacho.
• Na kariq taj we na atzukum taj.
• Xb’e oxib’ q’ij na ilom ta chi uwach le nuk’ul ja.
• Kurij la’ (xb’e keb’ oxib’ junab’) chakunnaq pa le tinamit.
• La ch’ajom wa’ we atz’yaq.
• Na xojkisik’ij taj rumal na josq’im ta le ko’ch.
• Xb’e wajxaqib’ junab’ e k’ulanik.

In this unit, we will take a look at incorporated movement in Passive and Antipassive constructions.

Incorporated movement in passive and antipassive constructions

The incorporated movement always refers to the agent of a phrase, never to the patient. Agent and patient here refer to semantic roles, not grammatical ones.  Agents are entities that DO THINGS. Patients are entities to which THINGS ARE DONE.

In K’iche the movement will always refer to an AGENT, even when the Agent is not expressed overtly in the verb, like in passive construction. In passive, we conventionally call the marked person in the verb the “subject,” semantically however, this “subject” is a PATIENT, because THINGS ARE DONE to it.

	The bench	was taken	by the woman
Grammatical	subject	passive verb	oblique object
Semantical	PATIENT	passive verb	AGENT

 

In a passive constructions in K’iche; an “incorporated movement” may be expressed, but it will refer to the AGENT not to the subject.

In Antipassive constructions, the grammatical subject refers to the AGENT; in those cases, the incorporated movement refers to the subject.

Examples:

ka’	metate, grinding stone
q’atb’al tzij	government
warab’al	bedroom, room
ojer tzij	back then, in the past, back in the day
elaq’aj (vtr)	to steal
tzapij (vtr)	to close
toj(o) (vtr)	to pay

For all of the following phrases, use passives or antipassives with incorporated movement:

1. Someone came to pick up my book.
2. Don Pedro came to cure.
3. Mary came to invite.
4. I am the one who is going to do the shopping.
5. Diego will go to invite you (formal) to the party
6. We came to make tamalitos
7. You all go to look for the cat.
8. Someone came to take me to dinner.
9. I am going to go be be cured in Guatemala.
10. Someone came to cure my daughter.

Answers

1. K’o xulk’amowa le nuwuj
2. Xulkunana le tat Lu
3. Xulsik’ina le nan Mari’y
4. In kine’b’anowa le loq’oj
5. Ke’sik’ina le a Tek che la pa le nimaq’ij
6. Xojulsub’anoq
7. Kixe’tzukuna che le me’s
8. K’o xinulelesana pa wa’im
9. Kine’kunaxa pa Ixim Ulew
10. K’o xulkunana le numi’al (wal)

As we saw in the previous unit, the direction of actions can be denoted in K’iche’. Verbs can also take on particles that let us know when a verb has a particular direction or movement.

K’iche’ verbs often include inserted parts that add a sense of ‘movement’ to the verb action, as in English  go (there) to (do), or come (here) to (do). This is called incorporated movement.

The two insertions used  (-e’– and –ul-) are derived from the intransitive verbs ul (coming here) and b’e (going there). In Standard K’iche’ –e’- appears as –b’e’.

Verbs that include “movement” use the suffixes as for imperatives.

 

Intransitive verbs with “movement”: In intransitive verbs with incorporated movement stress moves from last syllable to penultimate in non-phrase position:

Non-final: kine’xojówa

Phrase final: kine’xojow-oq

 

Transitive verbs with “movement”: Non-CVC transitive verbs do not show a change in the stem, when movement is incorporated.

CVC transitive verbs with movement use the same stem as the imperative. A glottal stop is added after the final vowel when in phrase final position:                            

–V	–V’
Non-final: ke’nwil-a	Phrase final: ke’nwil-a’
CoC  > o	CoC  > o’
CuC  > u	CuC  > u’
Ca/e/iC  >  a	Ca/e/iC  >  a’

 

Order of elements: The directional/movement particles are inserted between aspect marker and verb stem. The order of elements (there are exceptions):

Intransitive verbs:

TAM – Set B – MOV – Verb stem – phrase final suffix Kate’b’inoq k       –   at    –      e’     –      b’in – oq You are going to go walk

Transitive verbs:

TAM  – Set B – MOV – Set A – Verb stem Kojulkitzukuj. k      –      oj    –    ul    –    ki    –   tzukuj They are coming to look for us.

TAM – Set b – MOV – Set A – Verb stem – Ending –  Phrase final suffix Ke’nk’utu’ k      –     ø     –     e’     –     in     –     k’ut     –     u     –     ‘ I will go and show/teach it.

Exceptions appear especially for MOV –e’-, because the insertion leads to vowel clusters. In these cases the  order of Pronoun and MOV may be switched, weak vowels may be dropped, or –e’– is reduced to an inserted glottal (‘), a process we have already seen elsewhere:

*k-in-e’-uxlanoq Kinu‘xlanoq I am going to rest.

Vowel disappears: (weak –i from –inw- disappears)

*k-at-e’-(i)nw –il-a’ k-at-e’-nw-il-a’ I am going to see you. *k-ix-e’-inw-ila’ Kixe’nwila’. I go see you all.

 

Inserted glottal

*k-e’-uxlana la Ku’xlana la You (formal) go to rest

*k-in-e’-aw-ila’ Kina’wila You go see me.

In this unit, we will study directionals, particles that denote from/to where actions take place. They appear after verbs to signal direction.

K’iche’ has a set of post-verbal directional particles which add a sense of trajectory in/from the event. This trajectory takes place with reference to the speaker or the deictic origo of the action. Deixis is a linguistic concept that has to do with context. Deictic origo refers to the perspective from which the event is talked about:

Directionals in K’iche’:

la/ (u)loq	from there to origo
b’i(k)	away from origo
kan(oq)	origo has moved away from scene; time reference: past
apan(oq)	refers to movement between speaker and a place nearby
aq’an(oq)	movement upward; time reference: future
qaj(oq)	movement down, vertical movement
koq/ka	towards inside; horizontal movement on eye-level

Ex. [sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/directionals_36_xekanaj-kan.mp3″]Xekanaj kan le ajchakib’. They remained (back there) the workers.

“The workers” are the subject in this phrase. However, the directional kan reveals that the action is talked about from a perspective removed from the place of the action.

The directionals can often be translated as (MAIN VERB ACTION)  + “and then he goes away or out/come here/leave behind/goes up/goes down/goes in”

Some directionals change forms according to phonological environment; directionals have phrase-medial and phrase-final forms, and sometimes merge with other particles. Sometimes they give a specific meaning to a verb; for example:

k’am+ b’ik    “take away (there)”

k’am + uloq “bring (here)”

la/ (u)loq This form is used when action occurs towards the speaker’s spatial location. When (u)loq is not utterance final, it takes the form la. Uloq loses its first vowel when the preceding word ends in a vowel or vowel-like sound.

1.Le achi xka’y loq. The man looked in this direction (towards the speaker). 2.Iwir xintzalij uloq. I returned (here) yesterday. 3.We k’o arajil chak’ama loq. If you have money, bring it here.

Note that what distinguishes ‘take away’ from ‘bring’ in K’iche’, is the directional accompanying the verb –k’am:

–k’am:+ b’ik  “take away (there)”

–k’am:+ uloq  “bring (here)”

4.We k’o arajil, chak’ama la chwe’q. If you have any money, bring it tomorrow. 5.Iwir xujtzalij la pa k’ayb’al. Yesterday we returned (here) from the market. (u)loq combines with other adverbs or pronouns, changing sometimes its phonological shape:

With na:                      later, afterwards (this adds a sense of “future”)

Na + (u)loq > nu’loq

Na + la > nu’la

6.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/directionals_36_chweq-kinkam-nu-loq.mp3″]Chwe’q kink’am nu’loq. I will bring it (here) tomorrow

With la                       you (formal)

la + loq > lu’loq

la + la > lu’la

7.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/directionals_36_la-katzalij.mp3″]La katzalij lu’la aninaq? Will you (formal) return here quickly?

With wi                       trace

wi + loq > wu’loq

wi + la > wu’la

8.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/directionals_36_jawi-xakam-wu-la.mp3″]Jawi xak’am wu’la la’ le atz’yaq? From where did you bring the clothes here?

With chi                        again

chi + loq > chu’loq

chi+la> chu’la

9.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/directionals_36_le-achi-xkay-chuloq.mp3″]Le achi xka’y chu’loq. The man looked again in this direction.

With na…taj                   negators

Na…taj + loq > Na… tu’loq

Na…taj + la > Na…tu’la

10.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/directionals_36_na-nukamon-tu.mp3″]Na nuk’amom tu’la ri’. I have not brought that here.

B’i(k) This form is used with actions involving movement away from the speaker’s spatial location or deictic origo. When not in clause-final position, b’ik takes the form b’i.

11.Le ali xel b’ik. The girl went out (away from here). 12.Le achijab’ xeq’ab’ar b’ik. The men got drunk (before going away from here). Contrast Ex. 12 with Ex. 13 and 14: 13.Xeq’ab’ar la le achijab’. The men got drunk (coming here). 14.Le achijab’ xe’q’ab’aroq. The men went away and got drunk (incorporated movement: unit 37). 15.Chak’ama b’ik! Take it away from here! 16.Le ali xel b’i pa ja. The girl went out away from the house (the speaker is in the house). 17.Xujch’ay b’ik. We were beaten away (from the house). B’i(k) combines with other adverbs or pronouns, changing  sometimes its phonological shape:

With na                      later, afterwards

Na + b’ik > Nu’b’ik

Na + b’i > Nu’b’i

18.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/directionals_36_kinkam-nubi-chweq.mp3″]Kink’am nu’b’i chwe’q. I will take it (away) tomorrow.

With la                       you (formal)

la + b’ik > lu’b’ik

la + b’i > lu’b’i

19.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/directionals_36_la-kamik-kakam-lubik.mp3″]La kamik kak’am lu’b’ik? Will you (formal) take it away today?

With wi                       trace

wi + b’ik > wu’b’ik

wi + b’i > wu’b’i

20.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/directionals_36_le-rajil-la-pa-ja.mp3″]Le rajil, la pa ja xelaq’ax wu’b’ik? Was money stolen away from the house? (money was taken away)

With chi     again

chi + b’ik > chu’b’ik

chi + b’i > chu’b’i

21.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/directionals_36_xekam-chubi-le-alkalab.mp3″]Xek’am chu’b’i le ak’alab’. The children were taken away again.

With na…taj              negators

na…taj + b’ik > na…tu’b’ik

na…taj + b’i > na…tu’b’i

22.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/directionals_36_na-kaqakam-tubi-kamik.mp3″]Na kaqak’am tu’b’i kamik. We’re not taking it away today.

 Kan(oq) This form is used to indicate that the speaker/subject has moved away from the event location. Kanoq is found in phrase-final position and kan elsewhere.

23.Xekanaj kan le ajchakib’. The workers remained behind. 24.Xinya kan le nuchim pa k’ayb’al. I left my bag in the market. 25.Na xpe ta le qachi’il, xa warnaq kanoq. Our friend didn’t come, he remained behind sleeping. 26.Xqaya kanoq. We left it behind. 27.Le qatat xub’ij kanoq chi kape chi na. Our lord said before he left that he would come again later.

Apan(oq) This form is used with actions involving movement between the speaker and a point in space located nearby. Alternatively, it may indicate that the narrative’s deictic origo is not the sentence subject’s position, but the speaker’s.

Xinch’aw apan ruk’ le wanab’. / Xinch’aw apanoq. I spoke with my sister (from here to there). / I spoke (from here to there).

28.Xinyoq’ apanoq rumal cher na utz ta xinwil le wachib’al “Apocalypto” ub’i’. I was kicked around because I did not like the movie Apocalypto. 29.Le al Ixkik’ kakowinik katz’ib’an apanoq, chuq kach’aw apanoq pa nik’aj chik tinamit. Ixkik’ can write and speak to (people in) other countries. 30.Xa b’a kaqil qib’ kojej aretaq chintzalij apan chwa ja. Hopefully, we will see each other in four days when I get back home.

Aq’an(oq) This directional indicates movement upward. It can also refer to days into the future.

Kimb’e aq’an ruk’ le al Talin. / Kimb’e aq’anoq. I am going up there with Talin. / I am going up there.

Pa oxib’ q’ij aq’anoq, kimb’e ruk’ le nutat. In three days, I will go with my father.

Qaj(oq) This directional implies movement downward.

Xinxuli’ qaj pa le ja. / Xinxuli’ qajoq. I went down in/to the house (down stairs within the house, down from one house to another). / I went down.

Ka/Koq This directional indicates that the event is happening towards an “inside.”

31.Kimb’e na ka pa le wo’ch. I am just stepping inside my house (for a moment) 32.Kinka’y ka pa le wo’ch. I am peeking into the house (the understanding is that the head is stuck through the doorway/window ; movement of head is vertical on eye level).

sipaj (vtr)	to give (as a gift)
ka’y(ik) (vit)	to look
tzalij (vit)	to return
q’abar(ik) (vit)	to become drunk
wachib’al	movie, picture, painting, photograph

Translate the following phrases into English:

1. Qak’ama b’i le tz’i’. Xa kaqasipaj che le qachalal.
2. Janipa chi ix qajnaq la waral pa tinamit?
3. Karaj le achi kutij uwa chanim; chak’ama loq.
4. La kaj la kab’e la quk’ pa muqunik?
5. Xkanaj kan le achi je la’ pa taq’aj. Na xuq’i’ ta chik xpe quk’.
6. Na xekowin ta le winaq xkik’am la le kalk’w’al waral pa kunaxik.
7. Kachokon le laq chwe; utz kiya kanoq.
8. Kutij nu’b’i le uwa le wachajil, k’a te k’u ri’ kab’e pa chak.
9. Janipa kakowin la katzalij chi lu’loq?
10. Na kujwa’ ta chik. Xtijtaj la qech chuwa ja.
11. Kinch’aw apanoq ruk’ le numial aretaq chintzalij chwa wo’ch.

Answers

1. Let’s take the dog. We are just going to give it to our relatives.
2. How many times have you all already gone down from here to the town?
3. The man wants to eat his food now; bring it to him.
4. Do you want to go with us to the cemetery?
5. The man stayed over there on the coast. No longer bored, he came with us.
6. People cannot bring their children here to be healed.
7. I will use (set out) the dishes, it is fine to leave them.
8. My husband is going to eat his food. Afterwards, he will go to work.
9. When can you come back here again?
10. We’re not eating again. It was already eaten by us here in front of the house.
11. I will talk to my daughter when she returns home.

Translate the following phrases to K’iche’:

1. Do you (lal) want to take the dog away with you?
2. I was not able to bring my friend here today.
3. Leave (alaq) the dry ears of corn in the house.
4. We will bring the marimba here tomorrow.
5. Take care of yourself (lal) Diego (the speaker remains behind).
6. It is necessary that the money be returned here to the owner.
7.  I am stepping into my house (for a moment).

Answers

1. La kaj la kak’am la b’i le tz’i’?
2. Na xinkowin taj xink’am la le wachi’il kamik.
3. Kanaj alaq kan le jal pa ja.
4. Kaqak’am la le q’ojom chwe’q.
5. Chajij ib’ la b’i tat Tek.
6. Rajawaxik katzalijsan le rajil che le rajaw.
7. Kinok ka pa wo’ch.

Pronouns are words that can substitute for nouns, names and phrases. Similar to demonstrative articles, demonstrative pronouns also indicate closeness or visibility to the speaker. The demonstrative pronouns are wa’, la’ and ri’.  When they appear by themselves, they are postponed to the noun. Their forms correspond to the demonstrative articles.

 

wa’	This (very close to speaker) companion to we

1.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/demonstrative-pronouns_35_chikop-wa.mp3″]Chikop wa’. This (here very close) is an animal 2.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/demonstrative-pronouns_35_are-wa.mp3″]Are wa’. This (here very close) is it.

la’	That (one over there; in the vision field of the speaker, or spoken as if it were) companion to le

3.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/demonstrative-pronouns_35_mes-la.mp3″]Me’s la’. That one (over there) is a cat.

ri’	That (not present to the vision of the speaker, something done in the past, or not yet done, event in the future) companion of ri

4.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/demonstrative-pronouns_35_kej-ri.mp3″]Kej ri’. That is a horse.

The following example show how these pronouns function as substitutes for nouns, verbs, phrases:

5.Ajchak we ala. This boy is a worker. 6.Ajchak wa’. This here is a worker. 7.Nim we ab’aj. This rock is big. 8.Nim wa’. This one is big. 9.Utz we kinchakuj. I like this work (I like what I am working on/laboring over). 10.Utz wa’. This is good! 11.Xkos le achi. That man is tired. 12.Xkos la’. That one is tired out. 13.K’a’n le tz’i’. That dog is mean. 14.K’a’n la’. That one is mean. 15.Utz le xub’ij le achi. That which the man said was good. 16.Utz la’. That’s good 17.Jachin ri achi? Who is that man? 18.Jachin ri’? Who is that? 19.Xpax ri b’o’j. That pot broke. 20.Xpax ri’. It (that) broke. 21.K’ax ri kach’awik. It is harsh the way he speaks. 22.K’ax ri’. That is harsh.

Demonstrative pronouns can be used together with demonstrative articles to intensify them. In this case the demonstrative pronouns precedes the demonstrative article. Non-third person pronouns can also be emphasized by a demonstrative pronoun:

23.Wa’ we achi. This man here. 24.La’ le achi. That man over there. 25.Ri’ ri achi. That very man. 26.In wa’ we kiny’ow le tzijonem. I am the one (here) giving the lecture. 27. La at ri’ ri katyo’w le tzijonem? Are you the one (here) giving the lecture?

Demonstrative pronouns combine with the demonstrative article/relative pronoun to formm relative clauses:

28.K’ax ri’ ri kach’awik. It is difficult/harsh what he is saying. 29.Utz la’ le xub’ij le achi. It is good what the man said.

Demonstrative pronouns may combine with are (independent personal pronoun) to form stative predicates:

30.Are wa’ nuwuj. This here is my book. 31.A’re wa’ e wal. These here are my children 32. Are la’ kinchakuj. That is my work. 33. A’re la’ e ral. Those are her children. 34.Are ri’ qo’ch. That over there is our house. 35. A’re ri’ a’jk’ayib’. Those are the merchants. 36.In wa’ in ral le al Mari’y. I am Mari’y’s son/daughter. 37.La oj wa’ oj ajtijab’? Are we the teachers here?

Together with je’ demonstratives indicate manner or direction:

38.Je wa’ le nukej. My horse is like this. 39.Je wa’ we nukaslemal. This is my life! 40.Je wa’ katpetik. You come this way. 41.Je wa’ kixpe wi. You all come this way. 42.Je la’ xub’ij le achi chwe. Just like that the man said it to me. 43.Xeb’e le winaq je la’. The people went that way. 44.Je ri’ kachakun ri achi. This is the man’s work. Lit: The man works like that.

Translate the following phrases to English:

1. Nima chak wa’ we kachakuj.
2. Jachin la’?
3. Kape chi na ri’ chwe’q?
4. La’ xujuch’ab’ej iwir.
5. Jas che na kasipaj ta wa’ chqe?
6. Chajij alaq ronojel la’ le ximb’ij chech alaq.
7. Are ri’ ri nutz’i’ ri xink’ayij che ri achi.
8. La are la’ ri tinamit ri kab’e wi na la?
9. Are wa’ xub’ij ri nutat chwe aretaq ximb’e ruk’ pa chak.
10. A’re la’ e ral le ixoq le xch’aw quk’ iwir.
11. Je la’ kel le b’e le kab’e pa tinamit.
12. Je ri’ kach’aw le watz.
13. Kixok’owa je wa’.
14. La xo’k’ow ri’ ri winaq?
15. K’ax xub’ij ri’ ri achi chwe.

Answers

1. It’s a big job, what you do (the work you do).
2. Who is that?
3. Will he/she come again tomorrow?
4. (I think [la’ expresses doubt]) he/she spoke to us about that yesterday.
5. Why don’t you give us this?
6. Take care of everything I told you.
7. It was that dog of mine that I sold to the man.
8. Is that the town you’re going to?
9. This is what my father told me when I went with him to work.
10. They are the children of the woman who spoke to us yesterday.
11. There is the path that goes to the town.
12. That’s how my older brother talks.
13. Come through here.
14. Could those people have already passed by?
15. What that man told me was very offensive.

Translate the following phrases to K’iche’:

1. This one is sick
2. This man here will go with us tomorrow.
3. That man there gave us the land as a gift.
4. These are the man’s horses.
5. That is our house there.
6. Those (not present) are good children.
7. My house is like that one there.
8. The sick one was cured over there.
9. The boy’s clothes are like these.
10. That one died yesterday.

Answers

1. Wa’ we are’ xuriq yab’il.
2. Wa’ we achi kab’e quk’ chwe’q.
3. La’ le achi xusipaj ulew chqech.
4. A’re taq wa’ we u’kej le achi.
5. Are la’ le qo’ch.
6. Ri’ ri a’k’alab’ e utz.
7. Je wa’ we wo’ch in.
8. Je la’ xkunataj wi le yawab’.
9. Je la’ le ratz’yaq le ala.
10. La’ le are xkam iwir.

The indefinite article in K’iche’ jun is equivalent to English “a/an,” but can also be used for “one.”

Definite articles: K’iche’ uses three definite articles we, le or ri. They correspond somewhat to English this, that, and the. Which one is chosen depends mainly on physical or imagined closeness to the speaker and visibility of object spoken about.

In addition, the ri/le/we articles do not only refer to physical closeness, but can also refer to temporal distance: ri indicates things in the past, or not yet done; le refers to things recently done, with relevance to the present; we refers to things just done, going on right now.

It is important to remember that the use of these demonstratives is a matter of personal perspective, and not necessarily something absolute.  A speaker can indicate emotional closeness to an event through the use of a specific demonstrative article.

“Default article”: The default article in Nahuala is “le.”

Let’s take a look at the use of demonstrative articles:

WE is used for objects that are very close to speaker, you could touch it.

1.Utz we nutz’i’. The (my) dog (right here next to me) is good. 2.We achi xusipaj chwe jun p’ot. This man gave me a huipil as a present.

LE is used for objects that are not so close, but visible to speaker.

3.Utz le nutz’i’. The (my) dog (in my field of vision) is good.

RI is used for objects that are not visible to the speaker. In stories ri often refers to items already  known, or things that were introduced earlier. In other K’iche’ varieties ri seems to be the default article, whereas Nahualá seems to prefer le.

4.Utz ri nutz’i’. This (my) dog (not in my field of vision) is good. Relative pronouns These ri/le/we articles also serve as relative pronouns.

we	who, which (right here next to me, or just done)

5. [sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/demonstrative-articles_34_we-achi-we.mp3″]We achi we… This man, who.. 6.Utz we nutz’i’ we xisipaj chwe. This dog here, that you gave me, is very good. 7.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/demonstrative-articles_34_utz-we-achi-we-xinkunanik.mp3″]Utz we achi we xinkunanik. This is the good man who cured me

le	who, which (there, visible, or recently done)

8.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/demonstrative-articles_34_le-achi-le.mp3″]Le achi le… The man who… 9.Utz le nutz’i’ le xisipaj chwe. Good is the dog that you gave me. 10.Utz le achi le xinkunanik. The man who cured me is good. 11.Xpe le achi le xinkunaj iwir. The man whom I cured yesterday came. 12.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/demonstrative-articles_34_la-xpe-le-achi-le-xinkunan.mp3″]La xpe le achi le xinkunan iwir? Did the man who cured me come yesterday?

ri	who, which (not in my field of vision; not present to the speaker; not yet done, or done in the past)

13.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/demonstrative-articles_34_ri-achi-ri.mp3″]Ri achi ri… The man who… 14.Utz ri nutz’i’ ri xisipaj chwe. The dog that you all gave me is good.

Although it is possible to pair one type of article with different relative pronouns, some combinations are preferred:

(Article) we is almost always matched up with we (relative pronoun)

15. We achi we xusipaj chwe jun po’t xkamik. This man who gave me a huipil died.

A default combination is le followed by ri

16. Le wuj ri xasipaj chwe sib’alaj utz kinwilo. I really like the book that you gave me.

Ri + wi: locative relative pronoun (where). Ri (relative pronoun) together with wi results in a locative relative pronoun with the meaning “where.”

17.Le nimatijob’al ri kak’ut wi ri qach’ab’al, sib’alaj naj k’o wi. The school where our language (k’iche’) is taught is very far.

Jas(a) can combine with  we/le/ri  to introduce subordinate object clauses:

18.Chitatab’ej jas we kimb’ij. Listen to that which (right now) I say. 19.Chitatab’ej jas le kimb’ij. Listen to what (here and now) I say 20.Chitatab’ej jasa ri kimb’ij. Listen to what I say. 21.Chinimaj jas we kimb’ij chiwe. Obey what I am saying right here to you (now)!

nimaj (vtr)	to obey; heed
chakuj (vit)	to work
kam(ik)	to die
kej	horse
ak’al	child

Translate the following phrases to English:

1. Xkam ri kitat le ak’alab’ ojer.
2. Utz we ak’al, kinunimaj.
3. K’ax le xb’ij la che le achi.
4. La maja kape ri itat pa juyub’?
5. Ojer katin ri ixoq pa ja’ ronojel q’ij.
6. Kamik kechakun pa tinamit le winaq le xek’ayin le kej chwe.
7. Ri ixoq ri xixkunanik, sib’alaj kixuloq’oj.
8. Kaqajat’ij le tz’i’ ri xkamisan ri jun me’s.
9. Xul le achi ri xch’ab’en la kab’ijir.
10. Kunimaj le ak’al jas ri kab’ix che rumal ri utat.
11. Na utz ta we kinchakuj
12. Kaq’i’taj le utat le ak’al che le kub’ij re ralk’wal.

Answers

1. The children’s father died a long time ago.
2. The boy is good, he obeys me.
3. What you said to the man was offensive.
4. His father still has not come back from the mountain.
5. A long time ago, the woman used to bathe in the river everyday.
6. Today the people in the town who sold me the horse are working.
7. The woman who healed them loves them very much.
8. We tied up that dog that killed a cat.
9. That man you talked to the day before yesterday arrived.
10. The boy obeys what his dad tells him.
11. It is not good if I work on it.
12. The boy’s father got tired of what his son says.

Translate the following phrases to K’iche’. Choose an article or relative pronoun which seems appropriate (there is not necessarily one correct answer):

1. This man cured me a long time ago.
2. This is the man who cured me.
3. The man who spoke to you yesterday will come today in the afternoon.
4. The horse, which you sold to me, is sick now.
5. The children obeyed that which their father said to them.
6. That boy who left the day before yesterday works here.
7. The father of my wife died a long time ago.
8. Has your older brother still not arrived from town?
9. It is necessary that the man who gave me this horse go with us to the court house.
10. The child is sick again whom you cured a long time ago.
11. Did you listen to what the teacher said?
12. Tell me what the mayor said (just now).

Answers

1. Ojer xinukunaj wa’ we achi.
2. Are wa’ we achi le xinkunanik.
3. Le achi le xatch’aben iwir kape kamik b’enaq’ij.
4. Yawab’ le kej le xak’ayij chwe.
5. Keniman le ak’alab’ jas xub’ij le kitat.
6. Le ala le xb’e kab’ijir kachakun waral.
7. Le utat le wixoqil ojer chik kamnaq.
8. Le awatz maja kul pa le tinamit?
9. Le achi le xsipan we kej chwe rajawaxik kab’e quk’ pa le q’atb’al tzij.
10. Le ak’al le xakunaj ojer xuriq chi jumul le yab’il.
11. La xato jas xub’ij le ajtij.
12. Chab’ij chwe jas xub’ij le alkalte.

In K’iche’ the position in front of the verb is reserved to indicate “special attention” or “emphasis,” also called Focus or Topic. The default word order in K’iche’ is VS for intransitive phrases and VOA (verb, object, agent) for transitive phrases. However, all parts of the phrase may be moved in front of the verb to put some emphasis on this particular part.

Depending on what kind of emphasis is wanted by the speaker, and depending on which part of the phrase is moved in front of the verb, other changes may take place in the phrase.

Topic describes “what the conversation/text/discourse is about”. In K’iche’ the object or subject/agent of a phrase may be moved in front of the verb when done so to point to the Topic. No other changes to the verb or phrase are required.

Focus describes information that may be new or contrary to the presumed knowledge. When the Agent of a transitive phrase is focused and moved in front of the verb, the verb has to change into focus antipassive voice (AP II). Objects (always from a transitive phrase) may be moved in front of the verb without triggering any other change in verb morphology.

While the Absolutive Antipassive (aka Antipassive I) is used primarily in contexts in which the object is demoted or phased out, the Focus Antipassive (Antipassove II) is used when the Agent (or subject of a transitive clause) is focused. Agent Focus here means that in the text or discourse, special attention is shifted to the agent or subject of a transitive clause. Other parts of the phrase may be focused as well, but when it affects the Agent of a transitive clause, the verb in K’iche’ has to signal this through a different morphology (using the Antipassive II).

In the following English phrase the Agent (in bold) is in a contrastive focus; notice the “it is …., who…” construction, which can often, but not always, be employed to translate these types of phrases.

It was Thomas who called me yesterday.

K’iche’ grammar reflects this focus by special verb morphology and by changing default word order:

(1) The verb has to be put into the focus antipassive voice

(2) The focused part of speech moves in front of the verb and is often preceded by are (default word order for transitive clauses is VOA).

Are le Max xinch’aben iwir.

 Morphology

Derived transitives (non-CVC): the antipassive II is the same as the absolutive antipassive: -Vn-(ik) 

Root Transitives (CVC): The antipassive II is formed by the suffix –ow(ik), except for CuC roots, where the suffix is –uw(ik):

tij  > tijow

k’ot  > k’otow

k’ut  > k’utuw

Root Transitives that end in a Glottal Stop (CV’) If a root transitive ends in a glottal stop, (su’), the antipassive stem is C-V’w. The vowel changes according to the rules above: Ca, e, o’  > o’w; Cu’ > u’w; Please note that Ci’ roots change to –Cyo’w

su’   >     su’w	to wipe
to’    >     to’w	to help
sa’    >     so’w	to dry (before a fire/the sun)
ya’    >     yo’w (yo’w becomes yo’ at the end of a phrase)	to give
ti’      >     tyo’w	to bite (dogs)

Use of the Focus Antipassive (AP II) The antipassive II is used for the following:

1. Contrastive focus on the agent (it was Max who…)
2. Negation of the agent (It wasn’t Max who)
3. Question of the agent (Who was the one who did this?)
4. in relative clauses (agent) (the man who did this)
5. When the agent noun phrase involves incorporation.

To focus an Agent, the noun phrase is pulled out and put in front of the verb. The word order for the Focus Antipassive is AVO.

For the Focus Antipassive, one of the participants, A or O, must be third person (singular or plural), or lal/alaq.

If both of A and O are non-third person/lal/alaq, active voice is used instead.

(a)In xatinch’ayo. It was me who hit you

Treatment of objects in Antipassive II In contrast to the Absolutive Antipassive, where underlying objects can only appear as an oblique phrase (with ch-E-e(ch)), the Focus Antipassive allows a direct object in the phrase.

However, the antipassive is morphologically intransitive, therefore has only one (1) slot for a pronoun, and marked only with set B pronouns. How to solve the problem to have two arguments, agent and object, but only one slot to fill?

In the focus antipassive (AP II) the absolutive pronoun (Set B) agrees with whichever noun is higher in the “animacy hierarchy”:

1^st, 2^nd > 3^rd  plural  > 3^rd sing  (with 2^nd person formal behaving like 3^rd sing)

For non-CVC or derived transitive verbs, the focus antipassive looks exactly the same as the absolutive antipassive: -Vn(ik).

It was stated above that the focus antipassive may only be used if one of the A or O noun-phrases is a third person. This rule applies when marking agreement with prefixes. Since the 2^nd person formal is not marked with a prefix it counts as a third person. Agent focus verbs may be marked with two non-third persons, if one of them is 2^nd person formal.

kem(o) (vtr)	to weave (tejer)
loq'(o) (vtr)	to buy
k’ayij (vtr)	to sell
b’atz	thread
k’ol (=sib’alaj)	very
ch’abej chik	coloquial: talk later! (talk to you later)

Fill in the blank spaces on the chart with the appropriate phrases.

Xutz’ib’aj jun wuj ri a Max	Max wrote a book.
Are ri a Max xatz’ib’an jun wuj	1.
Xuchup ri poro’n ri jab’	The rain put out the fire.
2.	It was the rain that put out the fire.
Xinaxib’ij pa b’e	You scared me on the road.
3.	It was you who scared me on the road.
Xujuti’ ri kumatz	The snake bit us.
Are ri kumatz xujtyo’wik	4.
Ri kumatz xtyo’n chqech	5.
Xujuxib’ij ri koj	The lion scared us.
6.	It was the lion that scared us.
Xixkilaq’apuj ri ixoqib’	The women hugged you.
A’re ri ixoqib’ xixlaq’apunik	7.
Are ri achi xinch’ayowik	8.

Answers

1. It was Max who wrote a book.
2. Are ri jab’ xchupuw ri poro’n.
3. La at xatxib’in chwe iwir.
4. It was the snake who bit us.
5. The snake bit us.
6. Are ri koj xojxib’inik.
7. It was the women who hugged you all.
8. It was the man who hit me.