Category: English

In this unit, we will study directionals, particles that denote from/to where actions take place. They appear after verbs to signal direction.

K’iche’ has a set of post-verbal directional particles which add a sense of trajectory in/from the event. This trajectory takes place with reference to the speaker or the deictic origo of the action. Deixis is a linguistic concept that has to do with context. Deictic origo refers to the perspective from which the event is talked about:

Directionals in K’iche’:

la/ (u)loq	from there to origo
b’i(k)	away from origo
kan(oq)	origo has moved away from scene; time reference: past
apan(oq)	refers to movement between speaker and a place nearby
aq’an(oq)	movement upward; time reference: future
qaj(oq)	movement down, vertical movement
koq/ka	towards inside; horizontal movement on eye-level

Ex. [sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/directionals_36_xekanaj-kan.mp3″]Xekanaj kan le ajchakib’. They remained (back there) the workers.

“The workers” are the subject in this phrase. However, the directional kan reveals that the action is talked about from a perspective removed from the place of the action.

The directionals can often be translated as (MAIN VERB ACTION)  + “and then he goes away or out/come here/leave behind/goes up/goes down/goes in”

Some directionals change forms according to phonological environment; directionals have phrase-medial and phrase-final forms, and sometimes merge with other particles. Sometimes they give a specific meaning to a verb; for example:

k’am+ b’ik    “take away (there)”

k’am + uloq “bring (here)”

la/ (u)loq This form is used when action occurs towards the speaker’s spatial location. When (u)loq is not utterance final, it takes the form la. Uloq loses its first vowel when the preceding word ends in a vowel or vowel-like sound.

1.Le achi xka’y loq. The man looked in this direction (towards the speaker). 2.Iwir xintzalij uloq. I returned (here) yesterday. 3.We k’o arajil chak’ama loq. If you have money, bring it here.

Note that what distinguishes ‘take away’ from ‘bring’ in K’iche’, is the directional accompanying the verb –k’am:

–k’am:+ b’ik  “take away (there)”

–k’am:+ uloq  “bring (here)”

4.We k’o arajil, chak’ama la chwe’q. If you have any money, bring it tomorrow. 5.Iwir xujtzalij la pa k’ayb’al. Yesterday we returned (here) from the market. (u)loq combines with other adverbs or pronouns, changing sometimes its phonological shape:

With na:                      later, afterwards (this adds a sense of “future”)

Na + (u)loq > nu’loq

Na + la > nu’la

6.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/directionals_36_chweq-kinkam-nu-loq.mp3″]Chwe’q kink’am nu’loq. I will bring it (here) tomorrow

With la                       you (formal)

la + loq > lu’loq

la + la > lu’la

7.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/directionals_36_la-katzalij.mp3″]La katzalij lu’la aninaq? Will you (formal) return here quickly?

With wi                       trace

wi + loq > wu’loq

wi + la > wu’la

8.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/directionals_36_jawi-xakam-wu-la.mp3″]Jawi xak’am wu’la la’ le atz’yaq? From where did you bring the clothes here?

With chi                        again

chi + loq > chu’loq

chi+la> chu’la

9.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/directionals_36_le-achi-xkay-chuloq.mp3″]Le achi xka’y chu’loq. The man looked again in this direction.

With na…taj                   negators

Na…taj + loq > Na… tu’loq

Na…taj + la > Na…tu’la

10.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/directionals_36_na-nukamon-tu.mp3″]Na nuk’amom tu’la ri’. I have not brought that here.

B’i(k) This form is used with actions involving movement away from the speaker’s spatial location or deictic origo. When not in clause-final position, b’ik takes the form b’i.

11.Le ali xel b’ik. The girl went out (away from here). 12.Le achijab’ xeq’ab’ar b’ik. The men got drunk (before going away from here). Contrast Ex. 12 with Ex. 13 and 14: 13.Xeq’ab’ar la le achijab’. The men got drunk (coming here). 14.Le achijab’ xe’q’ab’aroq. The men went away and got drunk (incorporated movement: unit 37). 15.Chak’ama b’ik! Take it away from here! 16.Le ali xel b’i pa ja. The girl went out away from the house (the speaker is in the house). 17.Xujch’ay b’ik. We were beaten away (from the house). B’i(k) combines with other adverbs or pronouns, changing  sometimes its phonological shape:

With na                      later, afterwards

Na + b’ik > Nu’b’ik

Na + b’i > Nu’b’i

18.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/directionals_36_kinkam-nubi-chweq.mp3″]Kink’am nu’b’i chwe’q. I will take it (away) tomorrow.

With la                       you (formal)

la + b’ik > lu’b’ik

la + b’i > lu’b’i

19.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/directionals_36_la-kamik-kakam-lubik.mp3″]La kamik kak’am lu’b’ik? Will you (formal) take it away today?

With wi                       trace

wi + b’ik > wu’b’ik

wi + b’i > wu’b’i

20.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/directionals_36_le-rajil-la-pa-ja.mp3″]Le rajil, la pa ja xelaq’ax wu’b’ik? Was money stolen away from the house? (money was taken away)

With chi     again

chi + b’ik > chu’b’ik

chi + b’i > chu’b’i

21.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/directionals_36_xekam-chubi-le-alkalab.mp3″]Xek’am chu’b’i le ak’alab’. The children were taken away again.

With na…taj              negators

na…taj + b’ik > na…tu’b’ik

na…taj + b’i > na…tu’b’i

22.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/directionals_36_na-kaqakam-tubi-kamik.mp3″]Na kaqak’am tu’b’i kamik. We’re not taking it away today.

 Kan(oq) This form is used to indicate that the speaker/subject has moved away from the event location. Kanoq is found in phrase-final position and kan elsewhere.

23.Xekanaj kan le ajchakib’. The workers remained behind. 24.Xinya kan le nuchim pa k’ayb’al. I left my bag in the market. 25.Na xpe ta le qachi’il, xa warnaq kanoq. Our friend didn’t come, he remained behind sleeping. 26.Xqaya kanoq. We left it behind. 27.Le qatat xub’ij kanoq chi kape chi na. Our lord said before he left that he would come again later.

Apan(oq) This form is used with actions involving movement between the speaker and a point in space located nearby. Alternatively, it may indicate that the narrative’s deictic origo is not the sentence subject’s position, but the speaker’s.

Xinch’aw apan ruk’ le wanab’. / Xinch’aw apanoq. I spoke with my sister (from here to there). / I spoke (from here to there).

28.Xinyoq’ apanoq rumal cher na utz ta xinwil le wachib’al “Apocalypto” ub’i’. I was kicked around because I did not like the movie Apocalypto. 29.Le al Ixkik’ kakowinik katz’ib’an apanoq, chuq kach’aw apanoq pa nik’aj chik tinamit. Ixkik’ can write and speak to (people in) other countries. 30.Xa b’a kaqil qib’ kojej aretaq chintzalij apan chwa ja. Hopefully, we will see each other in four days when I get back home.

Aq’an(oq) This directional indicates movement upward. It can also refer to days into the future.

Kimb’e aq’an ruk’ le al Talin. / Kimb’e aq’anoq. I am going up there with Talin. / I am going up there.

Pa oxib’ q’ij aq’anoq, kimb’e ruk’ le nutat. In three days, I will go with my father.

Qaj(oq) This directional implies movement downward.

Xinxuli’ qaj pa le ja. / Xinxuli’ qajoq. I went down in/to the house (down stairs within the house, down from one house to another). / I went down.

Ka/Koq This directional indicates that the event is happening towards an “inside.”

31.Kimb’e na ka pa le wo’ch. I am just stepping inside my house (for a moment) 32.Kinka’y ka pa le wo’ch. I am peeking into the house (the understanding is that the head is stuck through the doorway/window ; movement of head is vertical on eye level).

sipaj (vtr)	to give (as a gift)
ka’y(ik) (vit)	to look
tzalij (vit)	to return
q’abar(ik) (vit)	to become drunk
wachib’al	movie, picture, painting, photograph

Translate the following phrases into English:

1. Qak’ama b’i le tz’i’. Xa kaqasipaj che le qachalal.
2. Janipa chi ix qajnaq la waral pa tinamit?
3. Karaj le achi kutij uwa chanim; chak’ama loq.
4. La kaj la kab’e la quk’ pa muqunik?
5. Xkanaj kan le achi je la’ pa taq’aj. Na xuq’i’ ta chik xpe quk’.
6. Na xekowin ta le winaq xkik’am la le kalk’w’al waral pa kunaxik.
7. Kachokon le laq chwe; utz kiya kanoq.
8. Kutij nu’b’i le uwa le wachajil, k’a te k’u ri’ kab’e pa chak.
9. Janipa kakowin la katzalij chi lu’loq?
10. Na kujwa’ ta chik. Xtijtaj la qech chuwa ja.
11. Kinch’aw apanoq ruk’ le numial aretaq chintzalij chwa wo’ch.

Answers

1. Let’s take the dog. We are just going to give it to our relatives.
2. How many times have you all already gone down from here to the town?
3. The man wants to eat his food now; bring it to him.
4. Do you want to go with us to the cemetery?
5. The man stayed over there on the coast. No longer bored, he came with us.
6. People cannot bring their children here to be healed.
7. I will use (set out) the dishes, it is fine to leave them.
8. My husband is going to eat his food. Afterwards, he will go to work.
9. When can you come back here again?
10. We’re not eating again. It was already eaten by us here in front of the house.
11. I will talk to my daughter when she returns home.

Translate the following phrases to K’iche’:

1. Do you (lal) want to take the dog away with you?
2. I was not able to bring my friend here today.
3. Leave (alaq) the dry ears of corn in the house.
4. We will bring the marimba here tomorrow.
5. Take care of yourself (lal) Diego (the speaker remains behind).
6. It is necessary that the money be returned here to the owner.
7.  I am stepping into my house (for a moment).

Answers

1. La kaj la kak’am la b’i le tz’i’?
2. Na xinkowin taj xink’am la le wachi’il kamik.
3. Kanaj alaq kan le jal pa ja.
4. Kaqak’am la le q’ojom chwe’q.
5. Chajij ib’ la b’i tat Tek.
6. Rajawaxik katzalijsan le rajil che le rajaw.
7. Kinok ka pa wo’ch.

Pronouns are words that can substitute for nouns, names and phrases. Similar to demonstrative articles, demonstrative pronouns also indicate closeness or visibility to the speaker. The demonstrative pronouns are wa’, la’ and ri’.  When they appear by themselves, they are postponed to the noun. Their forms correspond to the demonstrative articles.

 

wa’	This (very close to speaker) companion to we

1.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/demonstrative-pronouns_35_chikop-wa.mp3″]Chikop wa’. This (here very close) is an animal 2.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/demonstrative-pronouns_35_are-wa.mp3″]Are wa’. This (here very close) is it.

la’	That (one over there; in the vision field of the speaker, or spoken as if it were) companion to le

3.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/demonstrative-pronouns_35_mes-la.mp3″]Me’s la’. That one (over there) is a cat.

ri’	That (not present to the vision of the speaker, something done in the past, or not yet done, event in the future) companion of ri

4.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/demonstrative-pronouns_35_kej-ri.mp3″]Kej ri’. That is a horse.

The following example show how these pronouns function as substitutes for nouns, verbs, phrases:

5.Ajchak we ala. This boy is a worker. 6.Ajchak wa’. This here is a worker. 7.Nim we ab’aj. This rock is big. 8.Nim wa’. This one is big. 9.Utz we kinchakuj. I like this work (I like what I am working on/laboring over). 10.Utz wa’. This is good! 11.Xkos le achi. That man is tired. 12.Xkos la’. That one is tired out. 13.K’a’n le tz’i’. That dog is mean. 14.K’a’n la’. That one is mean. 15.Utz le xub’ij le achi. That which the man said was good. 16.Utz la’. That’s good 17.Jachin ri achi? Who is that man? 18.Jachin ri’? Who is that? 19.Xpax ri b’o’j. That pot broke. 20.Xpax ri’. It (that) broke. 21.K’ax ri kach’awik. It is harsh the way he speaks. 22.K’ax ri’. That is harsh.

Demonstrative pronouns can be used together with demonstrative articles to intensify them. In this case the demonstrative pronouns precedes the demonstrative article. Non-third person pronouns can also be emphasized by a demonstrative pronoun:

23.Wa’ we achi. This man here. 24.La’ le achi. That man over there. 25.Ri’ ri achi. That very man. 26.In wa’ we kiny’ow le tzijonem. I am the one (here) giving the lecture. 27. La at ri’ ri katyo’w le tzijonem? Are you the one (here) giving the lecture?

Demonstrative pronouns combine with the demonstrative article/relative pronoun to formm relative clauses:

28.K’ax ri’ ri kach’awik. It is difficult/harsh what he is saying. 29.Utz la’ le xub’ij le achi. It is good what the man said.

Demonstrative pronouns may combine with are (independent personal pronoun) to form stative predicates:

30.Are wa’ nuwuj. This here is my book. 31.A’re wa’ e wal. These here are my children 32. Are la’ kinchakuj. That is my work. 33. A’re la’ e ral. Those are her children. 34.Are ri’ qo’ch. That over there is our house. 35. A’re ri’ a’jk’ayib’. Those are the merchants. 36.In wa’ in ral le al Mari’y. I am Mari’y’s son/daughter. 37.La oj wa’ oj ajtijab’? Are we the teachers here?

Together with je’ demonstratives indicate manner or direction:

38.Je wa’ le nukej. My horse is like this. 39.Je wa’ we nukaslemal. This is my life! 40.Je wa’ katpetik. You come this way. 41.Je wa’ kixpe wi. You all come this way. 42.Je la’ xub’ij le achi chwe. Just like that the man said it to me. 43.Xeb’e le winaq je la’. The people went that way. 44.Je ri’ kachakun ri achi. This is the man’s work. Lit: The man works like that.

Translate the following phrases to English:

1. Nima chak wa’ we kachakuj.
2. Jachin la’?
3. Kape chi na ri’ chwe’q?
4. La’ xujuch’ab’ej iwir.
5. Jas che na kasipaj ta wa’ chqe?
6. Chajij alaq ronojel la’ le ximb’ij chech alaq.
7. Are ri’ ri nutz’i’ ri xink’ayij che ri achi.
8. La are la’ ri tinamit ri kab’e wi na la?
9. Are wa’ xub’ij ri nutat chwe aretaq ximb’e ruk’ pa chak.
10. A’re la’ e ral le ixoq le xch’aw quk’ iwir.
11. Je la’ kel le b’e le kab’e pa tinamit.
12. Je ri’ kach’aw le watz.
13. Kixok’owa je wa’.
14. La xo’k’ow ri’ ri winaq?
15. K’ax xub’ij ri’ ri achi chwe.

Answers

1. It’s a big job, what you do (the work you do).
2. Who is that?
3. Will he/she come again tomorrow?
4. (I think [la’ expresses doubt]) he/she spoke to us about that yesterday.
5. Why don’t you give us this?
6. Take care of everything I told you.
7. It was that dog of mine that I sold to the man.
8. Is that the town you’re going to?
9. This is what my father told me when I went with him to work.
10. They are the children of the woman who spoke to us yesterday.
11. There is the path that goes to the town.
12. That’s how my older brother talks.
13. Come through here.
14. Could those people have already passed by?
15. What that man told me was very offensive.

Translate the following phrases to K’iche’:

1. This one is sick
2. This man here will go with us tomorrow.
3. That man there gave us the land as a gift.
4. These are the man’s horses.
5. That is our house there.
6. Those (not present) are good children.
7. My house is like that one there.
8. The sick one was cured over there.
9. The boy’s clothes are like these.
10. That one died yesterday.

Answers

1. Wa’ we are’ xuriq yab’il.
2. Wa’ we achi kab’e quk’ chwe’q.
3. La’ le achi xusipaj ulew chqech.
4. A’re taq wa’ we u’kej le achi.
5. Are la’ le qo’ch.
6. Ri’ ri a’k’alab’ e utz.
7. Je wa’ we wo’ch in.
8. Je la’ xkunataj wi le yawab’.
9. Je la’ le ratz’yaq le ala.
10. La’ le are xkam iwir.

The indefinite article in K’iche’ jun is equivalent to English “a/an,” but can also be used for “one.”

Definite articles: K’iche’ uses three definite articles we, le or ri. They correspond somewhat to English this, that, and the. Which one is chosen depends mainly on physical or imagined closeness to the speaker and visibility of object spoken about.

In addition, the ri/le/we articles do not only refer to physical closeness, but can also refer to temporal distance: ri indicates things in the past, or not yet done; le refers to things recently done, with relevance to the present; we refers to things just done, going on right now.

It is important to remember that the use of these demonstratives is a matter of personal perspective, and not necessarily something absolute.  A speaker can indicate emotional closeness to an event through the use of a specific demonstrative article.

“Default article”: The default article in Nahuala is “le.”

Let’s take a look at the use of demonstrative articles:

WE is used for objects that are very close to speaker, you could touch it.

1.Utz we nutz’i’. The (my) dog (right here next to me) is good. 2.We achi xusipaj chwe jun p’ot. This man gave me a huipil as a present.

LE is used for objects that are not so close, but visible to speaker.

3.Utz le nutz’i’. The (my) dog (in my field of vision) is good.

RI is used for objects that are not visible to the speaker. In stories ri often refers to items already  known, or things that were introduced earlier. In other K’iche’ varieties ri seems to be the default article, whereas Nahualá seems to prefer le.

4.Utz ri nutz’i’. This (my) dog (not in my field of vision) is good. Relative pronouns These ri/le/we articles also serve as relative pronouns.

we	who, which (right here next to me, or just done)

5. [sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/demonstrative-articles_34_we-achi-we.mp3″]We achi we… This man, who.. 6.Utz we nutz’i’ we xisipaj chwe. This dog here, that you gave me, is very good. 7.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/demonstrative-articles_34_utz-we-achi-we-xinkunanik.mp3″]Utz we achi we xinkunanik. This is the good man who cured me

le	who, which (there, visible, or recently done)

8.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/demonstrative-articles_34_le-achi-le.mp3″]Le achi le… The man who… 9.Utz le nutz’i’ le xisipaj chwe. Good is the dog that you gave me. 10.Utz le achi le xinkunanik. The man who cured me is good. 11.Xpe le achi le xinkunaj iwir. The man whom I cured yesterday came. 12.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/demonstrative-articles_34_la-xpe-le-achi-le-xinkunan.mp3″]La xpe le achi le xinkunan iwir? Did the man who cured me come yesterday?

ri	who, which (not in my field of vision; not present to the speaker; not yet done, or done in the past)

13.[sc_embed_player fileurl=”https://tzij.coerll.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/demonstrative-articles_34_ri-achi-ri.mp3″]Ri achi ri… The man who… 14.Utz ri nutz’i’ ri xisipaj chwe. The dog that you all gave me is good.

Although it is possible to pair one type of article with different relative pronouns, some combinations are preferred:

(Article) we is almost always matched up with we (relative pronoun)

15. We achi we xusipaj chwe jun po’t xkamik. This man who gave me a huipil died.

A default combination is le followed by ri

16. Le wuj ri xasipaj chwe sib’alaj utz kinwilo. I really like the book that you gave me.

Ri + wi: locative relative pronoun (where). Ri (relative pronoun) together with wi results in a locative relative pronoun with the meaning “where.”

17.Le nimatijob’al ri kak’ut wi ri qach’ab’al, sib’alaj naj k’o wi. The school where our language (k’iche’) is taught is very far.

Jas(a) can combine with  we/le/ri  to introduce subordinate object clauses:

18.Chitatab’ej jas we kimb’ij. Listen to that which (right now) I say. 19.Chitatab’ej jas le kimb’ij. Listen to what (here and now) I say 20.Chitatab’ej jasa ri kimb’ij. Listen to what I say. 21.Chinimaj jas we kimb’ij chiwe. Obey what I am saying right here to you (now)!

nimaj (vtr)	to obey; heed
chakuj (vit)	to work
kam(ik)	to die
kej	horse
ak’al	child

Translate the following phrases to English:

1. Xkam ri kitat le ak’alab’ ojer.
2. Utz we ak’al, kinunimaj.
3. K’ax le xb’ij la che le achi.
4. La maja kape ri itat pa juyub’?
5. Ojer katin ri ixoq pa ja’ ronojel q’ij.
6. Kamik kechakun pa tinamit le winaq le xek’ayin le kej chwe.
7. Ri ixoq ri xixkunanik, sib’alaj kixuloq’oj.
8. Kaqajat’ij le tz’i’ ri xkamisan ri jun me’s.
9. Xul le achi ri xch’ab’en la kab’ijir.
10. Kunimaj le ak’al jas ri kab’ix che rumal ri utat.
11. Na utz ta we kinchakuj
12. Kaq’i’taj le utat le ak’al che le kub’ij re ralk’wal.

Answers

1. The children’s father died a long time ago.
2. The boy is good, he obeys me.
3. What you said to the man was offensive.
4. His father still has not come back from the mountain.
5. A long time ago, the woman used to bathe in the river everyday.
6. Today the people in the town who sold me the horse are working.
7. The woman who healed them loves them very much.
8. We tied up that dog that killed a cat.
9. That man you talked to the day before yesterday arrived.
10. The boy obeys what his dad tells him.
11. It is not good if I work on it.
12. The boy’s father got tired of what his son says.

Translate the following phrases to K’iche’. Choose an article or relative pronoun which seems appropriate (there is not necessarily one correct answer):

1. This man cured me a long time ago.
2. This is the man who cured me.
3. The man who spoke to you yesterday will come today in the afternoon.
4. The horse, which you sold to me, is sick now.
5. The children obeyed that which their father said to them.
6. That boy who left the day before yesterday works here.
7. The father of my wife died a long time ago.
8. Has your older brother still not arrived from town?
9. It is necessary that the man who gave me this horse go with us to the court house.
10. The child is sick again whom you cured a long time ago.
11. Did you listen to what the teacher said?
12. Tell me what the mayor said (just now).

Answers

1. Ojer xinukunaj wa’ we achi.
2. Are wa’ we achi le xinkunanik.
3. Le achi le xatch’aben iwir kape kamik b’enaq’ij.
4. Yawab’ le kej le xak’ayij chwe.
5. Keniman le ak’alab’ jas xub’ij le kitat.
6. Le ala le xb’e kab’ijir kachakun waral.
7. Le utat le wixoqil ojer chik kamnaq.
8. Le awatz maja kul pa le tinamit?
9. Le achi le xsipan we kej chwe rajawaxik kab’e quk’ pa le q’atb’al tzij.
10. Le ak’al le xakunaj ojer xuriq chi jumul le yab’il.
11. La xato jas xub’ij le ajtij.
12. Chab’ij chwe jas xub’ij le alkalte.

In K’iche’ the position in front of the verb is reserved to indicate “special attention” or “emphasis,” also called Focus or Topic. The default word order in K’iche’ is VS for intransitive phrases and VOA (verb, object, agent) for transitive phrases. However, all parts of the phrase may be moved in front of the verb to put some emphasis on this particular part.

Depending on what kind of emphasis is wanted by the speaker, and depending on which part of the phrase is moved in front of the verb, other changes may take place in the phrase.

Topic describes “what the conversation/text/discourse is about”. In K’iche’ the object or subject/agent of a phrase may be moved in front of the verb when done so to point to the Topic. No other changes to the verb or phrase are required.

Focus describes information that may be new or contrary to the presumed knowledge. When the Agent of a transitive phrase is focused and moved in front of the verb, the verb has to change into focus antipassive voice (AP II). Objects (always from a transitive phrase) may be moved in front of the verb without triggering any other change in verb morphology.

While the Absolutive Antipassive (aka Antipassive I) is used primarily in contexts in which the object is demoted or phased out, the Focus Antipassive (Antipassove II) is used when the Agent (or subject of a transitive clause) is focused. Agent Focus here means that in the text or discourse, special attention is shifted to the agent or subject of a transitive clause. Other parts of the phrase may be focused as well, but when it affects the Agent of a transitive clause, the verb in K’iche’ has to signal this through a different morphology (using the Antipassive II).

In the following English phrase the Agent (in bold) is in a contrastive focus; notice the “it is …., who…” construction, which can often, but not always, be employed to translate these types of phrases.

It was Thomas who called me yesterday.

K’iche’ grammar reflects this focus by special verb morphology and by changing default word order:

(1) The verb has to be put into the focus antipassive voice

(2) The focused part of speech moves in front of the verb and is often preceded by are (default word order for transitive clauses is VOA).

Are le Max xinch’aben iwir.

 Morphology

Derived transitives (non-CVC): the antipassive II is the same as the absolutive antipassive: -Vn-(ik) 

Root Transitives (CVC): The antipassive II is formed by the suffix –ow(ik), except for CuC roots, where the suffix is –uw(ik):

tij  > tijow

k’ot  > k’otow

k’ut  > k’utuw

Root Transitives that end in a Glottal Stop (CV’) If a root transitive ends in a glottal stop, (su’), the antipassive stem is C-V’w. The vowel changes according to the rules above: Ca, e, o’  > o’w; Cu’ > u’w; Please note that Ci’ roots change to –Cyo’w

su’   >     su’w	to wipe
to’    >     to’w	to help
sa’    >     so’w	to dry (before a fire/the sun)
ya’    >     yo’w (yo’w becomes yo’ at the end of a phrase)	to give
ti’      >     tyo’w	to bite (dogs)

Use of the Focus Antipassive (AP II) The antipassive II is used for the following:

1. Contrastive focus on the agent (it was Max who…)
2. Negation of the agent (It wasn’t Max who)
3. Question of the agent (Who was the one who did this?)
4. in relative clauses (agent) (the man who did this)
5. When the agent noun phrase involves incorporation.

To focus an Agent, the noun phrase is pulled out and put in front of the verb. The word order for the Focus Antipassive is AVO.

For the Focus Antipassive, one of the participants, A or O, must be third person (singular or plural), or lal/alaq.

If both of A and O are non-third person/lal/alaq, active voice is used instead.

(a)In xatinch’ayo. It was me who hit you

Treatment of objects in Antipassive II In contrast to the Absolutive Antipassive, where underlying objects can only appear as an oblique phrase (with ch-E-e(ch)), the Focus Antipassive allows a direct object in the phrase.

However, the antipassive is morphologically intransitive, therefore has only one (1) slot for a pronoun, and marked only with set B pronouns. How to solve the problem to have two arguments, agent and object, but only one slot to fill?

In the focus antipassive (AP II) the absolutive pronoun (Set B) agrees with whichever noun is higher in the “animacy hierarchy”:

1^st, 2^nd > 3^rd  plural  > 3^rd sing  (with 2^nd person formal behaving like 3^rd sing)

For non-CVC or derived transitive verbs, the focus antipassive looks exactly the same as the absolutive antipassive: -Vn(ik).

It was stated above that the focus antipassive may only be used if one of the A or O noun-phrases is a third person. This rule applies when marking agreement with prefixes. Since the 2^nd person formal is not marked with a prefix it counts as a third person. Agent focus verbs may be marked with two non-third persons, if one of them is 2^nd person formal.

kem(o) (vtr)	to weave (tejer)
loq'(o) (vtr)	to buy
k’ayij (vtr)	to sell
b’atz	thread
k’ol (=sib’alaj)	very
ch’abej chik	coloquial: talk later! (talk to you later)

Fill in the blank spaces on the chart with the appropriate phrases.

Xutz’ib’aj jun wuj ri a Max	Max wrote a book.
Are ri a Max xatz’ib’an jun wuj	1.
Xuchup ri poro’n ri jab’	The rain put out the fire.
2.	It was the rain that put out the fire.
Xinaxib’ij pa b’e	You scared me on the road.
3.	It was you who scared me on the road.
Xujuti’ ri kumatz	The snake bit us.
Are ri kumatz xujtyo’wik	4.
Ri kumatz xtyo’n chqech	5.
Xujuxib’ij ri koj	The lion scared us.
6.	It was the lion that scared us.
Xixkilaq’apuj ri ixoqib’	The women hugged you.
A’re ri ixoqib’ xixlaq’apunik	7.
Are ri achi xinch’ayowik	8.

Answers

1. It was Max who wrote a book.
2. Are ri jab’ xchupuw ri poro’n.
3. La at xatxib’in chwe iwir.
4. It was the snake who bit us.
5. The snake bit us.
6. Are ri koj xojxib’inik.
7. It was the women who hugged you all.
8. It was the man who hit me.

In K’iche’ when we want to topicalize the agents of transitive verbs, we use a special construction called the antipassive. It is called antipassive because it is arguably the opposite of a passive construction. As you know, in passive constructions the verbal object is topicalized and the agent demoted. In contrast, in antipassive constructions objects are demoted and agents topicalized. Antipassive verbs are intransitive and agents are marked with set B markers. There are two antipassive constructions in K’iche’:

• Absolutive antipassive (aka AP I)
• Agent Focus antipassive (or focus construction) (aka AP II).

The absolutive antipassive (AP I) focuses on the action and demotes the object, which is often presupposed. It may be introduced as an oblique prepositional phrase headed by ch(i)-E-e(ch).

The agent focus antipassive (AP II) foregrounds verbal agents (A) (see unit 33).

The absolutive antipassive (AP I) focuses on the action and demotes the object, which is often presupposed. It may be introduced as an oblique prepositional phrase headed by ch(i)-E-e(ch).

As we said earlier, antipassive forms are intransitive, so Set B pronominal markers mark subject agreement. They also take the suffix –ik in phrase-final position.

1.Kakitik ixim ri achijab’. The men plant corn. 2.Ketikon ri achijab’. The men are planting/the men plant. 3.Ketikonik They are planting/they plant.

Example 1 shows the usual active construction in which agents are marked with set A pronouns and objects with set B pronouns. In contrast, in the antipassive constructions in Ex. 2 and 3, the 3^rd person plural agents are marked with the Set B pronoun –e-.

Objects in the absolutive antipassive  construction In the absolutive antipassive an object cannot be expressed directly. It needs to be introduced by the relational noun ch-e (ch-ech) forming what linguists call “an oblique object.”

4.Kinuloq’oj le nutat. My father loves me. 5.Kaloq’on le nutat chwe. My father loves me.

Semantically, both the active construction in Ex. 4 and the antipassive construction in Ex. 5 are the same. The difference concerns pragmatic focus, which in English is often expressed through a raising tone on the focused element. Ex. 4 does not just convey the feelings of love the speaker bears towards his/her father but rather clarifies that it is indeed love and not some other affect presupposed by the interlocutors. Oftentimes the object is unnecessary as it is clear from the context. Nevertheless, as we said earlier, if needed it is an oblique object introduced by ch -E, as can be seen in example 5.

Transitive phrasal verbs that appear with a direct object as part of the verbal phrase, lose this object when in antipassive I:

Active: 6.Kinbisoj uwach le wal. I miss/am sad about my child AP I: 7.Kinbison che le wal. I miss/am sad about my child

Morphology of the absolutive antipassive (Antipassive I) The antipassive verbal stem takes the suffix –(V)n(ik)

Derived transitives (non-CVC) drop the –j of the active voice and substitute it with –n,

8.Kinq’ojomaj le q’ojom. I play the marimba (active). 9.Kinq’ojomanik. I play (in the sense of: music) (antipassive).  Root transitives (CVC) add the suffix – (V)n. The vowel is determined according to the following rules:

Rule	Example
if root vowel is u then –un	k’ut     >  -k’utun(ik)
if root vowel is a then –an	tz’aj    >  -tz’ajan(ik)
otherwise, -on	tij        >  -tijon(ik)
transitive verbs ending in glottal (‘) add –n.	su’      >  -kinsu’n(ik)

Irregular forms:

Active	Antipassive I	Gloss
to’	-tob’an(ik)	to help
t’is	-t’iso’man(ik)	to sew
loq’	-loq’oman(ik)	to buy

Transitive verbs not used in the absolutive antipassive (AP I): The following verbs generally do not occur in the absolutive antipassive.

Verb Root	Gloss	*Ungrammatical
aj	to want	*kinajanik
b’an	to do	*kinb’ananik
ya’	to give	*kinya’nik
k’is	to finish	*kink’isinik

Antipassive of the verbs tij  “eat” and tijoj “teach” The antipassive “tijon(ik)” from tij “to eat” idiomatically means “eat human flesh” (like animal would do). It is not a regular antipassive form of  “eat”. The verb –wa(ik) has replaced it. Tijon(ik) can also be the antipassive form of “teaching.”

Uses of the absolutive antipassive: 

Object demotion:  The object is obvious, unimportant or presupposed.

t’is                                                        to sew 10.Kut’is ri pantalon. S/he is sewing pants. 11.Kat’iso’manik. S/he is sewing.

To dissolve disambiguity in honorific address): Transitive clauses with first person singular (in) and second person formal (la/alaq; singular or plural) are ambiguous. The absolutive antipassive may be used to clarify which person is the subject and which is the object.

12.Kintzukuj la. I look for you (formal) or You (formal) look for me 13.Kintzukun che la. I look for you (antipassive). 14.Katzukun la chwe. You look for me (antipassive). 15.Kinto’ la. I help you or You help me (active) 16.Kintob’an che la I help you (antipassive). 17.Katob’an la chwe. You help me (antipassive). 18.Xinkunaj alaq. I cured y’all or Y’all cured me (active). 19.Xinkunan chech alaq. I cured y’all (antipassive). 20.Xkunan alaq chwe. Y’all cured me (antipassive).

In some dialects, sentences with a third person plural subject and a formal second person object are ungrammatical. In this case, the antipassive (passive works as well) is typically used as an alternative.

21.*Kuloq’oj la. He loves you (formal) 22.Kaloq’on che la. He loves (to) you (formal) (antipassive). 23.Kaloq’ox la rumal. You (formal) are loved by him (passive). 24.*Kakito’ la. They help you. 25.Ketob’an chech la. They help you (formal) (antipassive). Exceptions Some transitive verbs have intransitive counterparts used with tacit objects

-tij(o) (vtr)	to eat something	-wa’(ik) (vit)	to eat
-ch’ab’ej (vtr)	to talk to somebody	-ch’aw(ik) (vit)	to talk
-oq’ej (vtr)	to cry over someone	-oq’(ik) (vit)	to cry
-elaq’aj (vtr)	to steal something	-elaq’(ik) (vit)	to steal
-il(o) (vtr)	to see something	-ka’y(ik) (vit)	to look

Antipassive forms presuppose their objects. They’re either clear from the previous context or a culturally appropriate default. In some instances absolutive antipassives have become idiomatic expressions:

Kinwesaj	I take it out	kinelesanik	I take after someone
Tij	to eat something	tijon(ik)	to eat human flesh
K’am	to receive, take	k’aman(ik)	to become used to something
Riq	to find; to reach	riqon(ik)	to catch up, suffer
Ch’aj	to wash something	ch’ajan(ik)	to bathe, colors run
K’amowaj	to be grateful	k’amowan	acceptable

brin	big bag; (costal)
lame’t	bottle
xaq	only, no more than, just
uchi’ ja	door
we	this one (demonstrative article)
q’aluj (vtr)	to carry in one’s arms
b’ixaj (vtr)	to sing
ajlaj (vtr)	to count
maja	not yet
tatab’ej (vtr)	to listen to someone
b’isoj -wach (vtr)	to be sad about someone
raqij (vtr)	to break
wulij (vtr)	to dismantle; take down
tz’apij (vtr)	to close
paj (vtr)	to weigh
etaj (vtr)	to measure
sutij (vtr)	to twirl; to turn around; to spin around
ch’ajan (vit)	to wash oneself, to bathe

Translate and write the corresponding antipassive form with oblique object:

1. Xatinto’o.
2. Xujril le kunanel.
3. Xinloq’ le po’t.
4. Xkisipaj jun kami’x chwe.
5. Xinriq k’ax.
6. Xumes le warab’al ri ala.
7. Xinaq’aluj.
8. Xajosq’ij le upa awo’ch.
9. Xintz’ib’aj le wuj.
10. Xatkisolij le achijab’.
11. Xukem jun po’t we wanab’.
12. Xujto’ alaq.
13. Xatkiriq le ixoqib’.
14. Xkikamisaj le utiw ri achijab’.
15. Xuk’ayij jun ak’ ri ixoq.

Answers

1. Xintob’an chawech.
2. Xilon le kunanel chqech.
3. Xinloq’omanik (you cannot add an oblique object here).
4. Xesipanik (you cannot add an oblique object here).
5. Xinriqonik (you cannot add an oblique object here).
6. Xmeson ri ala che le warab’al.
7. Xatq’alun chwech.
8. Xatjosq’inik (you cannot add an oblique object here).
9. Xintz’ib’an che le wuj.
10. Xesolin le achijab’ chawech.
11. Xkemen we wanab’ che jun po’t.
12. Xtob’an alaq chqech.
13. Xeriqon apan le ixoqib’ chawech.
14. Xekamisan ri achijab’ che le utiw.
15. Xk’ayin ri ixoq (you cannot add an oblique object here).

Passive II (or completive passive), in contrast with Passive I, focuses on the result of the event/action or on the resulting state. It conveys that an action has been completely finished. A common use is in descriptions of processes, such as describing a recipe (once x is done, then…). We will see an example in our tzijonik, in which Nan Xe’p explains how to make sub’ (tamales), typically used to accompany meals.

Passive II focuses on the result of the event/action or on the resulting state. The passive II suffix is –(V)taj which is used with both root (CVC) and derived transitives (non-CVC). The vowel V of the  suffix –(V)taj is often dropped. It is usually the root vowel when present. Since these verb forms are intransitive, they take –ik when phrase final.

Examples:

kunaj: to heal; to cure

B’an(o): to do

In the completive passive (Pasive II) underlying agents are optionally introduced by utilizing E-umal:

 

Phrases that express an impersonal subject like “one can…X” or  “it can be X-ed…” are expressed in K’iche’ with the completive passive (passive II).

 

Irregular passive forms

Active	Passive I	Passive II
B’an(o)	b’an(ik)	b’antaj(ik)
Tij(o)	tij(ij)	tijtaj(ik)
Elesaj/Esaj	elesax (only)
Ta (to, phrase final)	ta(ik)

 

nab’e	first…
k’a te k’u ri	then…/after…
si’	firewood
iyej (vit)	to wait
pis(o) vtr	to wrap
ch’aj (vtr)	to wash
nuk’ (vtr)	to light (a fire)

Using the following verbs, and following Nan Xe’p’s example, explain the process of making coffee:

Le Kape

Q’ol kape	to pick coffee
Sa’	to dry
K’ilij	to (dry) roast
Jok’	to grind
K’ayij	to sell
Loq’	to buy
Nuk’ le q’aq’	to build a fire
Ch’aj le k’olb’al	to wash the coffeepot (container)
K’aq puwi le q’aq’	to put (the pot) on the stove
K’aq le saqli/joron  chupam	to put water in (the container)
K’aq le jok’om kape	to put the ground coffee in
Ch’u’q	to cover (with lid)
Poq’owik	to boil
Q’ij	to serve/pour coffee (and other hot liquids)

 

In K’iche’ there are two passive constructions which highlight the object of the verb without expressing the agent or subject. We simply refer to them as Passive I and Passive II. In this unit we will deal with Passive I, and we will move on to Passive II on the following one.

In passive voice the underlying object of a transitive verb is made into the subject of the passive verb phrase. Passive verbs are intransitive, which means that only one argument, the subject, is marked on the verb with Set B pronouns.  In the passive the agent of the underlying transitive phrase is not marked inside the verb anymore. It is demoted to an oblique and has to be introduced (when wanted) by the relational noun  -umal. In English, the agents of passive constructions are introduced by by. For example:

Active:

1. Xukunaj le yawab’ le aj q’ij he healed                the sick-one     the daykeeper V                                 O                     A The daykeeper healed the sick-one

Passive:

2. Xkunax le yawab’ (rumal le aj q’ij) was healed              the sick one     (by the daykeeper) V                                 S                      (oblique) The sick one was healed (by the daykeeper)

Since the passive verb can only bind one argument to itself in a passive construction, we have to use Set B pronouns to mark the S of passive verbs in K’iche’. The passive verbs work like an intransitive verb, and as such, it adds the marker –ik when used at the end of a phrase.

PASSIVE I The passive is marked on the verb as follows: 

Non-CVC Transitive Verbs: -x + (ik) (the –x replaces the –j from active voice)

3. Xukunaj (active) ‘she healed him’
   Xkunaxik (passive) ‘she was healed’

CVC Transitive Verbs:  lengthening of the root vowel + (ik)

4. Xuchapo (active) ‘He grabbed it’ Xchapik (passive) ‘He was grabbed’

If you want to express the agent for the passive voice verb, the relational noun –umal is used.

5. Xkunax le yawab’ rumal le ajq’ij The sick one was cured by the day keeper

However, you can do this in Passive I only if the agent is in the third person (by him/her/it/them). You have to use active voice if you want to express agents for the other persons: The man was cured by me. Xinkunaj le achi. (active) *xkunax le achi wumal (this is not permitted)

Earlier we have seen that you cannot have a third person agent together with a second person formal object in active transitive verb constructions. The same concept however can be expressed by a passive construction:

*Xukunaj la                 He healed you (formal)

For these constructions a passive is used:

6. Xkunax la rumal. You were healed by him.
7. Kakunax la rumal. You will be healed by him.

More examples of Passive I constructions:

8. Xukunaj le ala ri ixoq. The woman cured the boy.
   Xkunax le ala (rumal ri ixoq). The boy was cured (by the woman).
   Le ala xkunaxik. The boy was cured.

9. Xkichap le tz’i’ ri alab’om. The boys grabbed the dog.
   Xchap le tz’i’ (kumal ri alab’om). The dog was grabbed (by the boys).
   Le tz’i’ xchapik. The dog was grabbed.

10. Xeril le taq wakax ri ali. The girl saw the cows.
    Xe’il le taq wakax (rumal ri ali). The cows were seen (by the girl).
    Le wakax xe’ilik. The cows were seen.

11. Xatkito’ ri achijab’. The men helped you.
    Xatto’ (kumal ri achijab’) You were helped (by the men).
    Xatto’ik. You were helped.NOTE: Some dialects do not have long/short vowel distinctions. Also be aware that you may not hear the distinction in vowel length, and therefore you must pay close attention to the person-marking on root transitives.

    Which one of these phrases means “He found the dog” and which one means “The dog was found”?

    Xriq le tz’i’.

    Xuriq le tz’i’.