Author: jic459

In this unit we will study negation in K’iche’. We will use the particles na and ta(j) to create negative sencences.

Verb negation

Negative clauses in K’iche’ require two negation particles: na preceding the predicate head–which can be a verb, adjective, noun or pronoun–and ta(j) following it. Na is often deleted in colloquial speech. There are two variants of the second particle: taj in phrase-final position and ta elsewhere.

To answer “no” in K’iche’, the whole verb phrase is repeated and negated.

La kixwarik? La k-ix-warik? INT INC-2pl-sleep-pfm Are you all sleeping?

Na kujwar taj. Na     k-uj-war         taj Neg1 INC-1pl-sleep Neg2 We aren’t sleeping.

Na kujwar ta waral. Na     k-uj-war         ta       waral Neg1 INC-1pl-sleep Neg2 here We don’t sleep here.

Na kawar ta la. Na ka-ø-war ta la Neg1 INC-ø-sleep Neg2 2singF You aren’t sleeping. (Second person singular, formal)

Here are a couple more examples:

La katb’in pa le uxlanb’al? La k-at-b’in pa le uxlanb’al? INT INC-2sing-walk loc. art. park Are you walking to the park?

Na kimb’in taj. Na k-im-b’in taj Neg1 INC-1sing-walk Neg2 I am not walking.

La kixpe pa tijob’al? La k-ix-pe pa tijob’al? INT INC-2pl-come loc. school Are y’all coming to school?

Na kojpe taj. Na k-oj-pe taj Neg1 INC-1pl-come Neg2 We are not coming.

 

These are some more common intransitive verb roots:

b’in(ik)	to walk, to travel
b’e(k)	to go
pe(tik)	to come
kape le jab’	“it starts to rain”
kos(ik)	to be/become tired
qaj(ik)	to descend, to go down
kinqaj chuwach le juyub’.	“I descend the mountain”
wa'(ik)	to eat
ch’aw(ik)	to talk
ka’y(ik)	to see, to look
chakun(ik)	to work
kam(ik)	to die
war(ik)	to sleep
b’ixan(ik)	to sing
ki’kot(ik)	to be happy
b’ison(ik)	to be unhappy, sad
t’uyi'(k)	to sit
tak’i'(k)	to stand

 

You will hear a series of questions. Listen carefully and answer them both in the positive and the negative:

Answers

1. Je’ kinchakunik; Na kinchakun taj.
2. Je’ kaki’kot le achi; Na kaki’kot ta le achi.
3. Je’ kakos le b’anal si’; Na kakos ta le b’anal si’.
4. Je’ kape jab’; Na kape ta le jab’.
5. Je’ kimb’isonik; Na kimb’ison taj.
6. Je’ kojb’e awuk’ pa le nimatijob’al; Na kojb’e ta awuk’ pa le nimatijob’al.
7. Je’ kojwa’ik; Na kojwa’ taj.

In this lesson, we will study intransitive verbs. By the end of this lesson, you will be able to say what you do, for example, eat, sleep, and travel.

INTRANSITIVE VERBS

In K’iche’, there is an important distinction between the morphology of transitive and intransitive verbs. Intransitive verbs in K’iche’ include verbs referencing actions that do not directly affect anyone/anything except the agent (you can think about them as having a subject but not an object, if it helps). Verbs like walk, go, dance, sleep, etc. are intransitive. Verbs referencing feelings and mental states are also intransitive: dream, worry, be sad, be happy, etc.

In K’iche’ the person (agent) is marked in intransitive verbs using a set of prefixes generally known by Mayanists as “set B.”

Person	Singular	Gloss	Plural	Gloss
1st	-in- or –im- before b’	I	-oj-	We
2nd	-at-	You	-ix-	You all
2nd (Formal)	-la	You (Formal)	-alaq	You all (Formal)
3rd	Ø	He/she/it	-e- or glottal stop	They

Table 1. Intransitive verb subject markers (Set B)

We have already seen with constructions such as possession that K’iche’ is an agglutinative language, which means that particles attach to words to determine their meaning (for example: tinamit, nutinamit, qatinamit). To form a verb in K’iche’, the marker for the person that is doing the action (the agent) becomes part of the verb, as we see with the marker im (1sB: first person singular, set B) in Ex. 1 –B’e is the verb root for the verb “to go.” The k- at the beginning marks the tense or aspect of the verb. In this case, it is in incompletive (INC) aspect; the action is taking place (this is similar, though not equivalent to what we would call the present tense in English).

In Ex. 2 the second person singular marker –at– (2sB) precedes the verbal root –b’e. The so-called incompletive aspect marker k- (INC) precedes the person marker. The marker k- references ongoing or habitual actions. Note the interrogative proclitic la (INT) preceding the phrase. Like in the first example, pa (prep) is a preposition and le is an article (art).

When an intransitive verb comes at the end of a phrase, it takes a phrase final marker (PFM). This marker is usually -ik, though for the verb b’e it’s just -k. In Ex. 3 the suffix –k is a phrase final marker (PFM).

As you can see in the table above, the third person singular (he/she/it) is not marked. Instead of the marker, as a place holder we’ve written as Ø. In Nahualá, if the intransitive verb begins with a consonant, an a is added to the aspect marker k- in order to avoid having two consonants in a row. The third person singular form of “to go,” then, as you will see below, is kab’ek in phrase final position, or kab’e in a sentence such as “the student goes” “Kab’e le tijoxel” where the verb is not at the end of the phrase. The formal markers for the second person singular and plural (la, alaq) actually come after the verb, so verbs in the formal will never have a phrase final marker. Look over the following table, where b’e is marked and broken down for each person:

Aspect	Person	Root	Formal	PFM	Complete	Gloss
k-	in / im	b’e		-k	kimb’ek	I go
k-	at	b’e		-k	katb’ek	you go
ka-	—	b’e	la	—	kab’e la	you go (formal)
ka-	Ø	b’e		-k	kab’ek	he / she goes
k-	oj / uj	b’e		-k	kojb’ek	we go
k-	ix	b’e		-k	kixb’ek	you all go
ka-	—	b’e	alaq	—	kab’e alaq	you all go (formal)
k	e	b’e		-k	keb’ek	they go

Now take a look at the verb war(ik), “to sleep.” Can you predict how this verb would be marked for each person before looking at the table?

Aspect	Person	Root	Formal	PFM	Complete	Gloss
k-	in / im	war		-ik	kinwarik	I sleep
k-	at	war		-ik	katwarik	you sleep
ka-	—	war	la	—	kawar la	you sleep (formal)
ka-	Ø	war		-ik	kawarik	he / she sleeps
k-	oj / uj	war		-ik	kojwarik	we sleep
k-	ix	war		-ik	kixwarik	you all sleep
ka-	—	war	alaq	—	kawar alaq	you all sleep (formal)
k	e	war		-ik	kewarik	they sleep

 

pet(ik)	to come
“Kimpe pa…”	“I am from…” (Literally: I come from)
wa’lij(ik)	to get up
wa'(ik)	to eat
el(ik)	to leave, to go out
ch’aw(ik)	to speak
opan(ik)	to arrive (at a place where you are not at the time)
ul(ik)	to arrive (at the place where you are at the time)
“Kinopan pa le tijob’al.”	“I arrive at school” (said if you are not at school)
“Kinul pa le tijob’al.”	“I arrive at school” (said if you are at school)

 

Mark the following verb roots with each grammatical person.

1. wa’lij(ik) – to get up
2. ch’aw(ik) – to talk/speak
3. chakun(ik) – to work
4. b’in(ik) – to walk
5. wa'(ik) – to eat
6. etz’an(ik) – to play
7. pet(ik) – to come

Answers

1. Kinwalijik; katwalijik, kawalij la, kawalijik; kojwalijik; kixwalijik; kawalij alaq; kewalijik
2. Kinch’awik; katch’awik; kach’aw la; kach’awik; kojch’awik; kixch’awik; kach’aw alaq; kech’awik
3. Kinchakunik; katchakunik; kachakun la; kachakunik; kojchakunik; kixchakunik; kachakun alaq; kechakunik
4. Kimb’inik; katb’inik; kab’in la; kab’inik; kojb’inik; kixb’inik; kab’in alaq; keb’inik
5. Kinwa’ik; katwa’ik; kawa’ la; kawa’ik; kojwa’ik; kixwa’ik; kawa’ alaq; kewa’ik
6. Kinetz’anik; katetz’anik; ketz’an la; ketz’anik; kojetz’anik; kixetz’anik’ ketz’an alaq; ke’tz’anik
7. Kimpetik; katpetik; kape la; kapetik; kojpetik; kixpetik; kape alaq; kepetik

Go back to the tzijonik. Can you understand it better than the first time you read it? Can you write a few sentences about yourself and what you do everyday?

In this lesson, we will learn about plural forms to reference multiple objects and people. There are several ways to pluralize words and sentences in K’iche’.

Nouns

Plural nouns are marked with the suffix –Vb’, where V = Vowel. If the last vowel of the noun is –i or –e, the plural suffix is –ab’:

Note that a’re “they” is the plural of are “he/she”. When appearing as predicates of third person plural subjects, plural nouns require an agreement proclitic e (as in e tijoxelab’ “students” in Ex. 2).

If the last vowel of the noun is –a, -o, -u, the plural suffix is –ib’:

If the noun begins with a vowel, the proclitic e that marks plurality becomes a glottal stop inserted after the first vowel of the third person plural noun (a’jchakib’).

There are some exceptions to the vowel rule above. In almost of all of them, however, the meanings of the plural form are somewhat different from the singular:

Adjectives

Adjectives do not have plural forms except the following (the plural suffix is -aq)

When the adjective is acting as sentence predicate, a glottal stop is required after the ‘a’ in –aq.

For a more in-depth explanation of adjectives see lessons 28 and 29.

Proclitic particle ‘taq’

Plural nouns are marked with the proclitic taq.

b) In existential and stative sentences: When the predicate is a plural noun, the particle taq precedes the article. The reader should be aware that in K’iche’ predicates precede subjects unlike Spanish or English.

In Ex. 20, the predicate saq “white” precedes the subject taq le ja “the houses”.

When referencing animate nouns the agreement marker e before the predicate is preferred as in Ex. 22.

In example 23, the proclitic e is the sole plural marker as the proclitic taq does not appear preceding the subject le tz’i’ “the dogs.”

In like fashion, in example 24, the proclitic e before the predicate utz is the only plural marker.

In Ex. 25 both the predicate nima’q and the subject altomab’ bear plural markers.

In example 26, the agreement proclitic e precedes wal “my kids.” Note the plural marking on the pronoun a’re “they.”

Note the agreement proclitics (e and glottal stop) on both plural nouns in the predicate e tijoxelab’ and in the subject le a’chijab’.

In contrast to Ex. 28, the subject achijab’ does not show proclitic agreement in Ex. 29.

In existential sentences the proclitic e precedes the existential k’o as in Ex. 31. The cardinal number kajib’ “four” marks the subject as plural. Possessed nouns such as uk’ajol “his sons” are not pluralized.

Finally, there is an additional proclitic particle with a diminutive, affective connotation that indicates affection or appreciation towards the subject: staq, as in Ex. 33 below. Do not confuse this with taq, which is a distributive/diminutive as well (Ex. 34).

jun	one
keb’	two
oxib’	three
kajib’	four
jo’ob’	five
waqib’	six
wuqub’	seven
wajxaqib’	eight
b’elejeb’	nine
lajuj	ten
pix	tomato
ichaj	herbs
kaqa q’oq’	watermelon
q’an (inkine’y, prut)	banana
saqwach	potato
saqmo’l	egg
kinaq’	bean

Transform the following sentences into plural, then translate them into English:

1. K’o jun ajk’ay prut pa le k’ayb’al.
2. K’o jun tz’i’ pa le b’e.
3. La k’o le awuj? Je’, k’o nuwuj.
4. Ajk’ay pix le wachi’il.
5. K’o jun achi pa le k’ayb’al.

Answers

1. E k’o ajk’ay taq prut pa le k’ayb’al. (There are banana sellers in the market.)
2. E k’o taq le tz’i’ pa le b’e. (There are dogs on the street.)
3. La k’o taq le awuj? Je’ k’o taq le nuwuj. (Do you have your books? Yes, I have my books.)
4. Ajk’ay taq pix le e wachi’il. (The tomato sellers are my friends.)
5. E k’o achijab’ pa le k’ayb’al. (There are men in the market.)

In this unit you will learn how to ask questions. Next, we will take a look at how to construct negative sentences, which are a bit complex in K’iche’.

Yes/no questions in K’iche’ In K’iche’ yes/no questions simply require placing the particle La at the beginning as well as adding a raising intonation at the end. Listen carefully to the examples below.

-La k’o le atat? -Je’, k’olik.

-Is your dad (home)? -Yes, he is.

The particle je’ is utilized as yes. As we have seen, the particle k’o becomes k’olik when it is in the phrase final position.

-La xukul le a Xwan? – Je’, xukulik.

-Is Xwan kneeling? -Yes, he is.

– La oj oj nab’e? – Je’, oj oj nab’e.

-Are we first? -Yes, we are first

Please listen to the following examples and practice answering the questions.

– La k’o awe? – K’olik. OR: – Je’, k’o we.

-Do you have a girlfriend/boyfriend? -I do.-Yes, I have a girlfriend/boyfriend.

– La nim le atinamit? – Je’ nim. OR: – Je’, nim le nutinamit.

-Is your town big? -Yes, (it is) big. -Yes, my town is big.

– La at k’o ruk’ le atz’i’? – In k’olik. OR: – Je’, in k’o ruk’ le nutz’i’.

-Are you with your dog? -I am. -Yes, I am with my dog.

– La rax le juyub’? – Je’, rax. OR: – Je’, rax le juyub’.

-Is the mountain green? -Yes, (it is) green. -Yes, the mountain is green.

– La k’o le ajastaq? – Je’, k’olik. OR: – Je’, k’o le nujastaq.

-Do you have your things? -Yes, I do. -Yes, I have my things.

– La awachalal le al We’l? – Je’, wachalal. OR: – Je’, wachalal le al We’l.

-Is Manuela your relative? -Yes, (she is)my relative.-Yes, Manuela is my relative.

– La ix k’o pa le tijob’al? – Je’ oj k’olik. OR: – Je’, oj k’o pa le tijob’al.

-Are y’all at the school? -Yes, we are.-Yes, we are at the school.

 

Negation in non-verbal sentences In Nahuala K’iche’, the negative answer to yes/no questions is maj. The Spanish loanword no’ (with a glottal stop) is often heard as well. An answer with maj alone may be interpreted as somewhat curt but sometimes it is enough. Negation in K’iche’ is periphrastic, in other words, it requires two negation markers as in French, for example. The first is the (optional) particle na preceding the predicate. The second (obligatory) particle is ta or taj in sentence final position. Negative existential sentences in Nahuala start with maj and do not carry the existential k’o/k’olik. Let’s look at some examples:

sak’aj	smart, bright
k’ax	difficult
chaq’	younger sibling of the same sex
chwe’q	tomorrow
iwir	yesterday
kamik	today
chanim	right now
jab’	rain
uwaq’ij	sun rays
prut	banana
q’abarel	drunk (person)
t’iso’m	sewing
jastaq	things
-achalal	family relative

 

From the following word pairs, form questions indicating possession and answer them in the affirmative and in the negative. Example : at/ixoqil : La k’o awixoqil ? –Je’, k’olik. /Maj. -Do you have a wife? Yes, I do./ No, (I do not).

1.   At/wuj
2.  Al Nela/chak/pa tijob’al
3.   At/ xajab’
4. Nan Xe’p/po’t
5.  A Si’s, al Xe’p/xajab’
6.  At/chak
7. Ajtij/chakub’al/pa Nahualja’
8. Ix/pwaq
9. Tz’i’/wa
10. B’i/tz’i’
11. At/chaq’

Answers

1. La k’o le awuj? Je’ k’olik. Maj.
2. La k’o uchak al Nela pa tijob’al? Je’ k’olik. Maj.
3. La k’o axajab’? Je’ k’olik. Maj.
4. La k’o upo’t le Nan Xe’p? Je’ k’olik. Maj.
5. La k’o kixajab’ le a Si’s chi’l le al Xe’p? Je’ k’olik. Maj.
6. La k’o achak? Je’ k’olik. Maj.
7. La k’o uchakub’al le ajtij pa Nawalja’? Je’ k’olik. Maj.
8. La ix k’o ipwaq? Je’ k’olik. Maj.
9. La k’o uwa le tz’i’? Je’ k’olik. Maj.
10. La k’o ub’i’ le tz’i’? Je’ k’olik. Maj.
11. La k’o achaq’? Je’ k’olik. Maj.

Now, practice asking and answering the following questions in k’iche:

1. Are you in the United States?
2. Do you (plural) have a dog?
3. Xwan, is your younger brother home?
4. Is your dad a lumberjack?
5. Are you drunk?
6. Is the mayor in his office?
7. Are we smart at school?
8. Is the k’iche’ class difficult?
9. What’s your name (addressing an elder)?
10. Is Mari’y’s huipil green?

Answers

1. La at k’o pa Estados Unidos? Je’ in k’olik. In maj.
2. La ix k’o jun itz’i’? Je’ k’olik. Maj.
3. Xwan, la k’o le achaq’ pa awo’ch? Je’ k’olik. Maj.
4. La b’anal si’ le atat? Je’ b’anal si’ le nutat. Na b’anal si’ ta le nutat.
5. La at q’abarel? Je’, in q’abarel. Na in q’abarel taj.
6. La k’o le alkalte’ pa uchakub’al? Je’ k’olik. Maj.
7. La oj sak’aj pa tijob’al? Je’ oj sak’aj pa tijob’al. Na oj sak’aj taj.
8. La k’ax le tijonik re K’iche’? Je’ k’ax le tijonik. Na k’ax ta le tijonik.
9. Jas b’i’ la? Max le nub’i’.
10. La rax le upo’t le al Mari’y? Je’, rax le upo’t. Na rax ta le upo’t.